302 lines
7.8 KiB
Markdown
302 lines
7.8 KiB
Markdown
---
|
||
title: Tengan (tté ŋa)
|
||
...
|
||
|
||
|
||
<style>
|
||
.script table { border: none; }
|
||
</style>
|
||
|
||
<center style="margin-top: 2em">
|
||
<img src=tte1ga.svg height=100>
|
||
</center>
|
||
|
||
[SVG]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics
|
||
|
||
# Phonology
|
||
|
||
## Vowels
|
||
|
||
Front Central Back
|
||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||
Close «i» #/i/ «y» #/ʉ/ «u» #/u/
|
||
Mid «e» #/ɛ/ «o» #/ɔ/
|
||
Open «a» #/ɑ/
|
||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||
|
||
There are three tones, indicated by diacritics:
|
||
|
||
- High, with an acute accent «á» #/ɑ˥/
|
||
- Low, with no accent «a» #/ɑ˩/
|
||
- Falling, with a grave accent «à» #/ɑ˥˨/
|
||
|
||
Vowels can be nasalised, which is indicated by an «n» following the vowel (and
|
||
offglide if there is one).
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Consonants
|
||
|
||
Labial Alveolar Retroflex Velar
|
||
----------------- ----------- --------------- --------------- -----------
|
||
Plosive «p ph pp» «t th tt» «d dh dd» «k kh kk»
|
||
#/p pʰ pʼ/ #/t tʰ tʼ/ #/ʈ ʈʰ ʈʼ/ #/k kʰ kʼ/
|
||
Click «px» «tx lx» «dx»
|
||
#/ᵏʘ/ #/ᵏǀ ᵏǁ/ #/ᵏǃ/
|
||
Affricate «ts tsh tts» «dz dzh ddz»
|
||
#/ts tsʰ tsʼ/ #/ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʼ/
|
||
Lateral Affricate «tl tlh ttl» «dł dłh ddł»
|
||
#/tɬ tɬʰ tɬʼ/ #/ʈꞎ ʈꞎʰ ʈꞎʼ/
|
||
Fricative «f» «s sh» «z zh» «h»
|
||
#/f/ #/s sʰ/ #/ʂ ʂʰ/ #/χ/
|
||
Lateral Fricative «l» «ł»
|
||
#/ɬ/ #/ꞎ/
|
||
Nasal «m» «n» «ņ» «ŋ»
|
||
#/m/ #/n/ #/ɳ/ #/ŋ/
|
||
Nasal Click «mx» «nx nlx» «ņx»
|
||
#/ɴʘ/ #/ɴǀ ɴǁ/ #/ɴ!/
|
||
----------------- ----------- --------------- --------------- -----------
|
||
|
||
* Between two vowels or glides, non-aspirated pulmonic consonants become voiced:
|
||
#/ɬ ꞎ/ become #[l ɭ].
|
||
* Before #/i j/, #/x/ becomes #[ç]; before #/ɔ u w/ it becomes #[ɸ].
|
||
* The phoneme #/χ/ changes based on the following vowel or glide:
|
||
+ to #[ç] before #/i/ or #/j/, or
|
||
+ to #[ɸ] before #/o/, #/u/, or #/w/.
|
||
|
||
The rest of the time it is _uvular_, not velar.
|
||
* Syllable-final #/p t k/ are unreleased.
|
||
- \#/ᵏǀj/ and #/ᵏǃj/ are pronounced #[ᵏǂ], and #/ɴǀj ɴ!j/ as #[ɴǂ].[^nc]
|
||
|
||
[^nc]: This is not true of #/ǁ/ because I can't hear any difference whatsoever between #[ǁ] and #[ǂˡ]. This might be why the latter doesn't have a symbol of its own.
|
||
|
||
|
||
|
||
# Writing system
|
||
|
||
Tengan has a featural writing system similar to Hangul, called #|twén phỳk ná|, or 'syllable writing'. Each syllable is written in a block indicating different features of each part of the syllable.
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Initials
|
||
|
||
Initials are classed first into six basic shaped based on place of articulation. Laterals are counted as distinct places.
|
||
|
||
<figure class=script>
|
||
|
||
------- ------- -------
|
||
#|pa| #|da| #|la|
|
||
#|ta| #|ka| #|ła|
|
||
------- ------- -------
|
||
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
Other consonants are built by systematically adding modifiers above these bases. For example, for #|ta|:
|
||
|
||
<figure class=script>
|
||
|
||
-------- -------- --------- ---------
|
||
#|tha| #|tta| #|txa| #|tsa|
|
||
#|sa| #|sha| #|tsha| #|ttsa|
|
||
#|na| #|nxa|
|
||
-------- -------- --------- ---------
|
||
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Glides
|
||
|
||
Glides look the same before and after a vowel, and also when it is the initial consonant.
|
||
|
||
<figure class=script>
|
||
|
||
-------- -------- -------- -------- ------- --------
|
||
#|tja| #|twa| #|taj| #|taw| #|ja| #|wa|
|
||
-------- -------- -------- -------- ------- --------
|
||
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Vowels
|
||
|
||
The vowel symbols have no further internal structure.
|
||
|
||
<figure class=script>
|
||
|
||
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
|
||
#|ta| #|ti| #|te| #|tu| #|to| #|ty|
|
||
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
|
||
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Tones and nasalisation
|
||
|
||
The nasalisation is written below the offglide, and the tone after that.
|
||
|
||
<figure class=script>
|
||
|
||
-------- -------- --------
|
||
#|ta| #|tá| #|tà|
|
||
#|tan| #|tán| #|tàn|
|
||
-------- -------- --------
|
||
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Coda consonants
|
||
|
||
Coda consonants are the same as their initial counterparts, but are usually written slightly narrower.
|
||
|
||
<figure class=script>
|
||
|
||
------- -------- -------- --------
|
||
#|ta| #|tat| #|tak| #|tap|
|
||
------- -------- -------- --------
|
||
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
# Pronouns
|
||
|
||
There is an distinction between 'we' inclusive and exclusive of the listener(s).
|
||
|
||
Singular Plural
|
||
-- ---------- -----------------
|
||
1 #|fa| #|ŋa|, #|khwi|
|
||
2 #|thò| #|dyt|
|
||
3 #|zéj| #|ņaw|
|
||
4 #|han| #|kkù|
|
||
|
||
\#|ŋa| is the inclusive pronoun and #|khwi| the exclusive.
|
||
|
||
Third and fourth person pronouns are used as determiners ('this' and 'that'); fourth for new information in the conversation, and third for old.
|
||
|
||
Honorific forms of non-first person pronouns add #|txiw| afterward. Humble first person pronouns add #|lok|. (#|ŋa| doesn't allow either.)
|
||
|
||
|
||
# Verbs
|
||
|
||
## Aspect
|
||
|
||
Tense in Tengan is not expressed explicitly. The adverb #|dxop| 'earlier' is frequently used to emphasise an action took place in the past, but is not mandatory, and more specific time phrases are also common. The perfective aspect is marked using #|zú| after the modality marker.
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Modality
|
||
|
||
The main verb of each clause requires a modality marker of some sort after it.
|
||
|
||
### Evidentials
|
||
|
||
The indicative mood is split into six evidentiality levels, indicating why and how strongly the speaker believes the information to be true:
|
||
|
||
* first-hand direct sensory information with #|sa|;
|
||
* inferred with #|ddzé|;
|
||
* assumed with #|kwé| (weaker than #|ddzé|);
|
||
* reported (second-hand) with #|phàj|;
|
||
* reported _dubious_ information with #|mot|;
|
||
* \#|tow| for hypotheticals.
|
||
|
||
When telling a story from the third person, #|phàj| is used.
|
||
|
||
|
||
### Interrogative
|
||
|
||
Yes-no questions are marked with #|maj|. Content questions, e.g., with #|fon| 'what', do not also use #|maj|.
|
||
|
||
|
||
### Imperative
|
||
|
||
The imperative, with #|łó|, is used both for commands and plural propositions. The subject is not dropped in imperatives.
|
||
|
||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Pzò łó ŋa!
|
||
pzò łó ŋa
|
||
go IMP 1PL
|
||
Let's go!
|
||
```
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Pzò łó thò!
|
||
pzò łó thò
|
||
go IMP 2SG
|
||
Go!
|
||
```
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
## Auxiliary verbs
|
||
|
||
* \#|dxùn| fail
|
||
* \#|hék| not
|
||
* \#|jat| repeatedly
|
||
* \#|khéw| begin
|
||
* \#|kzun| may
|
||
* \#|mxá| try
|
||
* \#|nỳ| must
|
||
* \#|pojn| decide
|
||
* \#|tsap| finish
|
||
* \#|ttjò| stop, abandon
|
||
* \#|zwèp| want
|
||
* \#|kkjaw| can
|
||
|
||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Fa khéw nak ddzé zú.
|
||
fa khéw nak ddzé zú
|
||
1SG begin sleep inferred PF
|
||
I must have fallen asleep.
|
||
```
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Fa jat mxá tlo sa fa zéj.
|
||
fa jat mxá tlo sa zéj
|
||
1SG repeatedly try call first_hand 3SG
|
||
I keep trying to call him.
|
||
```
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
# Attitude particles
|
||
|
||
Attitude particles can come before any word to indicate the speaker's feelings
|
||
toward that referent or action. #|sén| is commonly attached to
|
||
compliments, and #|kkow| or #|dùp| to excuses.
|
||
|
||
* \#|dùp| regret
|
||
* \#|kkow| disappointment
|
||
* \#|sén| approval
|
||
* \#|dxák| disgust (vulgar)
|
||
* \#|ppwa| surprise
|
||
|
||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Thò hej sén lon phján!
|
||
thò hej sén lon phján
|
||
2SG do approval well piano
|
||
Wow, you play the piano well!
|
||
```
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Thò dxák hej dxák fon?!
|
||
thò dxák hej dxák fon
|
||
2SG disgust do disgust what
|
||
What the __ did you __ing do?!
|
||
```
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
# Causatives
|
||
|
||
The verb #|phyn| is used to make a causative sentence, for example:
|
||
|
||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||
```tgloss
|
||
Zéj phyn sa zú fa ma sa zín!
|
||
zéj phyn sa zú fa ma sa zín!
|
||
3SG cause FHW PRF 1SG have FHW fear
|
||
It frightened me!
|
||
```
|
||
</figure>
|
||
|
||
|
||
- - -
|
||
|
||
- SVO
|