--- title: Tengan (tté ŋa) ...
[SVG]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics # Phonology ## Vowels Front Central Back ------- ---------- ----------- ---------- Close «i» #/i/ «y» #/ʉ/ «u» #/u/ Mid «e» #/ɛ/ «o» #/ɔ/ Open «a» #/ɑ/ ------- ---------- ----------- ---------- There are three tones, indicated by diacritics: - High, with an acute accent «á» #/ɑ˥/ - Low, with no accent «a» #/ɑ˩/ - Falling, with a grave accent «à» #/ɑ˥˨/ Vowels can be nasalised, which is indicated by an «n» following the vowel (and offglide if there is one). ## Consonants   Labial Alveolar Retroflex Velar ----------------- ----------- --------------- --------------- ----------- Plosive «p ph pp» «t th tt» «d dh dd» «k kh kk» #/p pʰ pʼ/ #/t tʰ tʼ/ #/ʈ ʈʰ ʈʼ/ #/k kʰ kʼ/ Click «px» «tx lx» «dx» #/ᵏʘ/ #/ᵏǀ ᵏǁ/ #/ᵏǃ/ Affricate «ts tsh tts» «dz dzh ddz» #/ts tsʰ tsʼ/ #/ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʼ/ Lateral Affricate «tl tlh ttl» «dł dłh ddł» #/tɬ tɬʰ tɬʼ/ #/ʈꞎ ʈꞎʰ ʈꞎʼ/ Fricative «f» «s sh» «z zh» «h» #/f/ #/s sʰ/ #/ʂ ʂʰ/ #/χ/ Lateral Fricative «l» «ł» #/ɬ/ #/ꞎ/ Nasal «m» «n» «ņ» «ŋ» #/m/ #/n/ #/ɳ/ #/ŋ/ Nasal Click «mx» «nx nlx» «ņx» #/ɴʘ/ #/ɴǀ ɴǁ/ #/ɴ!/ ----------------- ----------- --------------- --------------- ----------- * Between two vowels or glides, non-aspirated pulmonic consonants become voiced: #/ɬ ꞎ/ become #[l ɭ]. * Before #/i j/, #/x/ becomes #[ç]; before #/ɔ u w/ it becomes #[ɸ]. * The phoneme #/χ/ changes based on the following vowel or glide: + to #[ç] before #/i/ or #/j/, or + to #[ɸ] before #/o/, #/u/, or #/w/. The rest of the time it is _uvular_, not velar. * Syllable-final #/p t k/ are unreleased. - \#/ᵏǀj/ and #/ᵏǃj/ are pronounced #[ᵏǂ], and #/ɴǀj ɴ!j/ as #[ɴǂ].[^nc] [^nc]: This is not true of #/ǁ/ because I can't hear any difference whatsoever between #[ǁ] and #[ǂˡ]. This might be why the latter doesn't have a symbol of its own. # Writing system Tengan has a featural writing system similar to Hangul, called #|twén phỳk ná|, or 'syllable writing'. Each syllable is written in a block indicating different features of each part of the syllable. ## Initials Initials are classed first into six basic shaped based on place of articulation. Laterals are counted as distinct places.
------- ------- ------- #|pa| #|da| #|la| #|ta| #|ka| #|ła| ------- ------- -------
Other consonants are built by systematically adding modifiers above these bases. For example, for #|ta|:
-------- -------- --------- --------- #|tha| #|tta| #|txa| #|tsa| #|sa| #|sha| #|tsha| #|ttsa| #|na| #|nxa| -------- -------- --------- ---------
## Glides Glides look the same before and after a vowel, and also when it is the initial consonant.
-------- -------- -------- -------- ------- -------- #|tja| #|twa| #|taj| #|taw| #|ja| #|wa| -------- -------- -------- -------- ------- --------
## Vowels The vowel symbols have no further internal structure.
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- #|ta| #|ti| #|te| #|tu| #|to| #|ty| ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
## Tones and nasalisation The nasalisation is written below the offglide, and the tone after that.
-------- -------- -------- #|ta| #|tá| #|tà| #|tan| #|tán| #|tàn| -------- -------- --------
## Coda consonants Coda consonants are the same as their initial counterparts, but are usually written slightly narrower.
------- -------- -------- -------- #|ta| #|tat| #|tak| #|tap| ------- -------- -------- --------
# Pronouns There is an distinction between 'we' inclusive and exclusive of the listener(s).   Singular Plural -- ---------- ----------------- 1 #|fa| #|ŋa|, #|khwi| 2 #|thò| #|dyt| 3 #|zéj| #|ņaw| 4 #|han| #|kkù| \#|ŋa| is the inclusive pronoun and #|khwi| the exclusive. Third and fourth person pronouns are used as determiners ('this' and 'that'); fourth for new information in the conversation, and third for old. Honorific forms of non-first person pronouns add #|txiw| afterward. Humble first person pronouns add #|lok|. (#|ŋa| doesn't allow either.) # Verbs ## Aspect Tense in Tengan is not expressed explicitly. The adverb #|dxop| 'earlier' is frequently used to emphasise an action took place in the past, but is not mandatory, and more specific time phrases are also common. The perfective aspect is marked using #|zú| after the modality marker. ## Modality The main verb of each clause requires a modality marker of some sort after it. ### Evidentials The indicative mood is split into six evidentiality levels, indicating why and how strongly the speaker believes the information to be true: * first-hand direct sensory information with #|sa|; * inferred with #|ddzé|; * assumed with #|kwé| (weaker than #|ddzé|); * reported (second-hand) with #|phàj|; * reported _dubious_ information with #|mot|; * \#|tow| for hypotheticals. When telling a story from the third person, #|phàj| is used. ### Interrogative Yes-no questions are marked with #|maj|. Content questions, e.g., with #|fon| 'what', do not also use #|maj|. ### Imperative The imperative, with #|łó|, is used both for commands and plural propositions. The subject is not dropped in imperatives.
```tgloss Pzò łó ŋa! pzò łó ŋa go IMP 1PL Let's go! ``` ```tgloss Pzò łó thò! pzò łó thò go IMP 2SG Go! ```
## Auxiliary verbs * \#|dxùn| fail * \#|hék| not * \#|jat| repeatedly * \#|khéw| begin * \#|kzun| may * \#|mxá| try * \#|nỳ| must * \#|pojn| decide * \#|tsap| finish * \#|ttjò| stop, abandon * \#|zwèp| want * \#|kkjaw| can
```tgloss Fa khéw nak ddzé zú. fa khéw nak ddzé zú 1SG begin sleep inferred PF I must have fallen asleep. ``` ```tgloss Fa jat mxá tlo sa fa zéj. fa jat mxá tlo sa zéj 1SG repeatedly try call first_hand 3SG I keep trying to call him. ```
# Attitude particles Attitude particles can come before any word to indicate the speaker's feelings toward that referent or action. #|sén| is commonly attached to compliments, and #|kkow| or #|dùp| to excuses. * \#|dùp| regret * \#|kkow| disappointment * \#|sén| approval * \#|dxák| disgust (vulgar) * \#|ppwa| surprise
```tgloss Thò hej sén lon phján! thò hej sén lon phján 2SG do approval well piano Wow, you play the piano well! ``` ```tgloss Thò dxák hej dxák fon?! thò dxák hej dxák fon 2SG disgust do disgust what What the __ did you __ing do?! ```
# Causatives The verb #|phyn| is used to make a causative sentence, for example:
```tgloss Zéj phyn sa zú fa ma sa zín! zéj phyn sa zú fa ma sa zín! 3SG cause FHW PRF 1SG have FHW fear It frightened me! ```
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