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Rhiannon Morris bc3a3de705 a small grammar
2021-06-11 11:10:19 +02:00

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Lántas nouns Lántas . lántas
  • Jánimł
  • Jáni-m-ł
  • John-DEF-PL
  • John and his friends :::

Definiteness

The definite suffix for nouns !(DEF)! is usually {!–m}, and is used more frequently than 'the' in English. For example, in the first sentence below Sam has one dog, but in the second he is implied to have several. The names of people and places are also definite.

The suffix has a few different forms depending on how the word ends:

               Ending  Suffix    Examples

       `{m}` or `{ḿ}`  `{!–am}`  `{!šaksḿam}` 'the ash',
                                 **TODO word ending in m**

other consonant or {ń} {!–ḿ} {!lántasḿ} 'the language', {!kášńḿ} 'the lizard' vowel, {ŕ}, or {ł} {!–m} {!luwam} 'the truth', {!laksŕm} 'the fish', {!ustaiƶłm} 'the singer'

A sequence {ńḿ} formed in this way is pronounced as /nm̩/. In other words, {!kášńḿ} has two syllables, not three like it is written. An extra {-a} is inserted after the {-m} form of the suffix if it is needed due to another suffix following it.

:::glosses

  • Sámimat ƶasim
  • Sami-ma-t ƶasi-m
  • Sam-DEF-GEN dog-DEF
  • Sam's dog
  • Sámimat ƶasi
  • Sami-ma-t ƶasi
  • Sam-DEF-GEN dog
  • one of Sam's dogs :::

:::glosses

  • guwanḿt samńḿ
  • ˈɡu.wa.nm̩t ˈsam.nm̩
  • guwan-ḿ-t samń-ḿ
  • sun-DEF-GEN colour-DEF
  • the colour of the sun :::

Using the definite suffix

The definite suffix is used:

:::examples

  • When the referent is old information already mentioned.

    • {!Pas nú bairusina.}
      {!Nai rala núm manifnut gašnat ippausi.}
      I saw two people. One of them was wearing a nice shirt.

  • For people, places, countries, and other proper names.

    • {!Ƶuƶ pas kášńł ǧiššimamba nuabia.}
      Those two lizards live above the bakery.

  • In time phrases with {!gimi}. However, {!naigimi} 'sometime' is indefinite.

    • {!Gimimli lána.}
      I'm doing it now.
    • {!Naigimimli lámána.}
      I'll do it at some point.

  • In statements of general fact.

    • {!Númsal pasla aƶal ai.}
      Humans have two eyes.

  • TODO: ?

:::

The definite suffix is not used (in contrast to English):

:::examples

  • In superlatives.

    • {!Milnutlit aifa.}
      It's the smallest.

  • TODO: ?

:::

Core cases

Declension for the core cases of {!nú} 'man' and {!lun} 'road' are shown below. Some of the endings are slightly different in the case of a stem ending in a consonant or vowel, and if the ending starts with multiple consonants the final one of the stem is dropped.

:::figure

                    `!SG !`      `!PL!`

Nominative !(NOM)! {!nú} {!nú·l} Genitive !(GEN)! {!nú·t} {!nú·t·ł} Comitative !(COM)! {!nú·kas} {!nú·kas·ł} Caritive !(CAR)! {!nú·ssa} {!nú·ssa·l} Instrumental !(INS)! {!nú·la} {!nú·la·l} Essive !(ESS)! {!nú·gu} {!nú·gu·l} Translative !(TRA)! {!nú·sti} {!nú·sti·l} Exessive !(EXE)! {!nú·ču} {!nú·ču·l}

     `!SG!`       `!PL!`

!NOM! {!lun} {!lun·ł} !GEN! {!lu·t} {!lun·t·ł} !COM! {!lun·kas} {!lun·kas·ł} !CAR! {!lu·ssa} {!lu·ssa·l} !INS! {!lun·la} {!lun·la·l} !ESS! {!lun·gu} {!lun·gu·l} !TRA! {!lu·sti} {!lu·sti·l} !EXE! {!lun·ču} {!lun·ču·l} :::

The nominative is the subject of sentences, and the unmarked form. The genitive is used for the object of sentences, the possessive, and for modifying other nouns (see below).

:::glosses

  • Jánim línait bairusi.
  • Jáni-m línai-t bairu-si
  • John-DEF mouse-GEN see-RPST
  • John saw a mouse.
  • Jánimat línai
  • Jáni-ma-t línai
  • John-DEF-GEN mouse
  • John's mouse
  • ausut línai
  • ausu-t línai
  • large-GEN mouse
  • a large mouse :::

For inalienable possession (body parts, family members, etc), the definite is usually used instead of an explicit genitive construction.

:::glosses

  • Nattumatł bairusina.
  • nattu-ma-t-ł bairu-si-na
  • parent-DEF-GEN-PL see-PST-1SG
  • I saw my [the] parents. :::

The comitative case is used for 'and' between two nouns, as well as 'with' in the sense of 'accompanied by'. It is used on all but the last noun being conjoined, with the last one taking the semantic case for the whole sequence. The opposite case, the caritive, means 'without', and is also used for negative possessive statements. (See the adessive, described below, for affirmative statements.)

:::glosses

  • suksł ká
  • suksł ká
  • they;COM I
  • they and I
  • Kalńkas ƶasit bairusina.
  • kalń-kas ƶasi-t bairu-si-na
  • cat-COM dog-GEN see-RPST-1SG
  • I saw a cat and a dog.
  • Sairiassa aina.
  • sairia-ssa ai-na
  • money-CAR be-1SG
  • I don't have any money.
  • Kat fadaukas ká rut ǧimamlis šikkúsi.
  • kat fadau-kas ká rut ǧima-m-li-s šikkú-si
  • my friend-COM I his house-DEF-IN-LAT go-RPST
  • I went with my friend to his house. :::

The most common use of the instrumental case is the "theme" of ditransitive sentences (while the recipient is in the genitive). It is also used for 'with' as in 'using', in distributive phrases such as {!kallila} 'in threes, in sets of three, three each', and quantifiers like 'every'.

:::glosses

  • Sanǧula paraina.
  • sanǧu-la parai-na
  • pen-INS write-1SG
  • I write with a pen.
  • kalli litrala tippi
  • kalli litra-la tippi
  • three litre-INS water
  • three litres of water
  • nakasnala hámal
  • nakasnala háma-l
  • every;INS country-PL
  • every country
  • nala núl
  • nala nú-l
  • any;INS person-PL
  • some people
  • nai rala númł
  • nai ra(n)-la nú-m-ł
  • one thing-INS person-DEF-PL
  • one of the people
  • nala númł
  • nala nú-m-ł
  • any;INS person-DEF-PL
  • some of the people :::

The basic meaning of the essive case is a state. It is used:

  • when a noun modifies another, but with a descriptive meaning
    {!wasalgu fadau} "animal friend" (i.e. a friend who is an animal);
  • as the object of certain verbs like TODO what?;
  • with comparatives;
  • as the second argument of {!ai} (in very conservative styles the nominative is still used here)

The translative and exessive cases indicate a change of state:

  • with state-change verbs, the translative marks the new state, and the exessive the old;
  • the exessive is also used with comparatives;
  • TODO what else is the translative used with otherwise why does it exist

TODO: examples

Locational cases

The locational cases are formed by pairs of suffixes, one for the type of motion and one for the orientation or part of the target object.1 These cases have formulaic names, e.g., 'adessive' (at), 'superablative' (from above), and so on. The prefixes describe the type of motion, and the main words indicate the relative position:

:::figure

ad--    `!AD!`   at, on
in--    `!IN!`   in

pre-- !PRE! in front of post-- !POST! behind inter-- !INTER! between, among super-- !SUPER! on top of, above sub-- !SUB! below, under apud-- !APUD! near, next to

essive  `!ESS!`  at, on
lative  `!LAT!`  towards

ablative !ABL! away from perlative !PRL! through, along

:::

Unlike for the core cases, the endings are the same regardless of whether the stem ends in a consonant or vowel, so they are only listed for {!nú}.

:::figure

               `!ESS!`        `!LAT!`          `!ABL!`          `!PRL!`

`!AD!`  `!SG!` `{!nú·sa}`     `{!nú·sa·s}`     `{!nú·sa·n}`     `{!nú·sa·ri}`
        `!PL!` `{!nú·sa·l}`   `{!nú·sa·s·ł}`   `{!nú·sa·n·ł}`   `{!nú·sa·ri·l}`
`!IN!`  `!SG!` `{!nú·li}`     `{!nú·li·s}`     `{!nú·li·n}`     `{!nú·li·ri}`
        `!PL!` `{!nú·li·l}`   `{!nú·li·s·ł}`   `{!nú·li·n·ł}`   `{!nú·li·ri·l}`

!PRE! !SG! {!nú·ƶu} {!nú·ƶu·s} {!nú·ƶu·n} {!nú·ƶu·ri} !PL! {!nú·ƶu·l} {!nú·ƶu·s·ł} {!nú·ƶu·n·ł} {!nú·ƶu·ri·l} !POST! !SG! {!nú·gi} {!nú·gi·s} {!nú·gi·n} {!nú·gi·ri} !PL! {!nú·gi·l} {!nú·gi·s·ł} {!nú·gi·n·ł} {!nú·gi·ri·l} !INTER! !SG! {!nú·nua} {!nú·nua·s} {!nú·nua·n} {!nú·nua·ri} !PL! {!nú·nua·l} {!nú·nua·s·ł} {!nú·nua·n·ł} {!nú·nua·ri·l} !SUPER! !SG! {!nú·ba} {!nú·ba·s} {!nú·ba·n} {!nú·ba·ri} !PL! {!nú·ba·l} {!nú·ba·s·ł} {!nú·ba·n·ł} {!nú·ba·ri·l} !SUB! !SG! {!nú·ku} {!nú·ku·s} {!nú·ku·n} {!nú·ku·ri} !PL! {!nú·ku·l} {!nú·ku·s·ł} {!nú·ku·n·ł} {!nú·ku·ri·l} !APUD! !SG! {!nú·mi} {!nú·mi·s} {!nú·mi·n} {!nú·mi·ri} !PL! {!nú·mi·l} {!nú·mi·s·ł} {!nú·mi·n·ł} {!nú·mi·ri·l}

:::

:::figure

  • {!Dufnamsas júlisina.}
    !(AD-LAT)! I stuck it onto the wall.
  • {!Ǧimamsa aihapa?}
    !(AD-ESS)! Are you at home?
  • {!Sihamgit ǧimamlis šikkúmána.}
    !(IN-LAT)! I'll be going home soon.
  • {!Sabut kalń káƶuri narasi.}
    !(PRE-PRL)! A black cat passed in front of me.
  • {!Ǧimamgi waibifás.}
    !(POST-ESS)! They're playing round the back of the house.
  • {!Lunsari šikkúsina.}
    !(AD-PRL)! I went down the road.
  • {!Lunliri šikkúsina.}
    !(IN-PRL)! I went across the road.
  • {!Lunmiri šikkúsina.}
    !(APUD-PRL)! I followed (alongside) the river.

:::

Non-locative uses

  • Subessive is used for:
    • 'in the opinion of': {!Kaku manifnut ai.}
      That's pleasant to me/I like that.
  • Superessive is used for:
    • 'about'
      {!Suba jaisi fína.}
      I had a dream about you.

Position words

The position suffixes give rise to the following words based on some roots {!fan}, {!gis}, and {!pul}, which no longer exist as separate words:

:::figure

  • {!fanaƶ}: surface
  • {!falliƶ}: interior
  • {!gissuƶ}: front
  • {!giksiƶ}: back
  • {!pulluaƶ}: company
  • {!gisbaƶ}: top
  • {!giskuƶ}: bottom
  • {!pummiƶ}: vicinity :::

Adjectivals

Most words considered as adjectives in other languages are in fact grammatically nouns in Lántas; words such as {!sabu} can be translated as 'the colour black'. When one noun modifies another attributively, the genitive case suffix {-t} is used. In the case of multiple adjectives, all other than the last have a modified form of the comitative suffix, {–kat}. Adjectives, like other noun modifiers, precede the head noun.

Genitive forms can be used as adverbs with the suffix {-tta}; the conjunctive variant is {-ttás}. Adverbs appear immediately before the verb if they are short. Long adverbial phrases, as well as context-setting adverbs such as time words, are usually placed before the rest of the sentence. Longer adverb phrases at the start of a sentence are often separated from the rest by a comma.

:::glosses

  • sabut ƶasi
  • sabu-t ƶasi
  • black-GEN dog
  • a black dog
  • líbit ƶasi
  • líbi(s)-t ƶasi
  • happy-GEN dog
  • a happy dog
  • sabut líbiskat ƶasi
  • sabu-kat líbi(s)-t ƶasi
  • black-ADJCOM happy-GEN dog
  • a happy black dog
  • Línaim sihatta irhi.
  • línai-m siha-tta irhi
  • mouse-GEN small-ADV squeak
  • The mouse is squeaking quietly. :::

From adjectivals, several further derivations can be made: the equative, which expresses that two objects have an equal measure of some property; the comparative, which says that one object has more of a property than another object; and the superlative, which claims that an object has the most of a property.

:::figure

          Adjective `{!ausu·t}`      big
 Equative `!(EQU)!` `{!ausu·t·sat}`  as big as

Comparative !(CMP)! {!ausu·t·pat} bigger than Superlative !(SUPL)! {!ausu·t·lit} the biggest

:::

The noun being compared with is in the essive case for the equative, and the exessive for the comparative.

:::glosses

  • ǧimagu ausutsat
  • ǧima-gu ausu-t-sat
  • house-ESS big-GEN-EQU
  • as big as a house
  • fíraču panísatpat
  • fíra-ču panísa-t-pat
  • sky-EXE blue-GEN-CMP
  • bluer than the sky :::

  1. You might think that this sounds too artificial, but I actually stole it from Tsez. That's also where I got the pseudolatin names. ↩︎