old sketches
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---
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title: Gspol
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...
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<style>
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@import url(//fonts.googleapis.com/earlyaccess/notosanskr.css);
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.word {
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font-family: 'Noto Sans KR', serif;
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font-style: normal;
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}
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.mini { font-size: smaller }
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.huge { font-size: 36pt }
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.centered {
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text-align: center;
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margin-left: 7em;
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margin-right: 7em;
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}
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</style>
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<center>
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<div class="mini centered">
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<span class="word huge">긋포ᇐ</span><br>
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If the above text doesn't look like [this image](gspol.png), the rest of this page is not going to be very comprehensible.
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</div>
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</center>
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# Phonology
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Each syllable consists of an initial, an optional #/j/, a vowel, and an optional final.
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## Consonants
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### Initials
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<div class=mini>
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Bilabial Alveolar Retroflex Velar Glottal
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------------------ ---------------- ---------------- ----------------- ---------------- ----------------
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Plain plosive «ᄇ» #/p/ _b_ «ᄃ» #/t/ _d_ «ᄌ» #/ʈ/ _đ_ «ᄀ» #/k/ _g_ «ᅙ» #/ʔ/ _x_
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Aspirated plosive «ᄑ» #/pʰ/ _p_ «ᄐ» #/tʰ/ _t_ «ᄎ» #/ʈʰ/ _ţ_ «ᄏ» #/kʰ/ _k_
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Ejective plosive «ᄈ» #/pʼ/ _pp_ «ᄄ» #/tʼ/ _tt_ «ᄍ» #/ʈʼ/ _ţţ_ «ᄁ» #/kʼ/ _kk_
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Prenasal plosive «ᄜ» #/ᵐb/ _mb_ «ᄕ» #/ⁿd/ _nd_ «ꥭ» #/ᶯɖ/ _ņđ_ «ᅁ» #/ᵑɡ/ _ŋg_
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Fricative «ᄡ» #/f/ _f_ «ꥢ» #/θ/ _z_ «ᄒ» #/h/ _h_
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«ᄉ» #/s/ _s_ «ᄴ» #/ʂ/ _ş_
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Nasal «ᄆ» #/m/ _m_ «ᄂ» #/n/ _n_ «ᄘ» #/ɳ/ _ņ_
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Lateral «ᄅ» #/l/ _l_ «ᄙ» #/ɭ/ _ļ_
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#/s/ + Plosive «ᄲ» #/sp/ _sb_ «ᄯ» #/st/ _sd_ «ᄶ» #/ʂʈ/ _sđ_ «ᄭ» #/sk/ _sg_
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#/s/ + Asp plosive «ᄺ» #/spʰ/ _sp_ «ᄹ» #/stʰ/ _st_ «ᄷ» #/ʂʈʰ/ _sţ_ «ᄸ» #/skʰ/ _sk_
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#/s/ + Nasal «ᄱ» #/sm/ _sm_ «ᄮ» #/sn/ _sn_
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#/s/ + Lateral «ᄰ» #/sɬ/ _sl_
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</div>
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### Finals
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<div class=mini>
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Bilabial Alveolar Retroflex Velar Glottal
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------------------ ---------------- ---------------- ----------------- ---------------- ----------------
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Unreleased plosive «ᄇ» #/p˺/ _b_ «ᄃ» #/t˺/ _d_ «ᄌ» #/ʈ˺/ _đ_ «ᄀ» #/k˺/ _g_
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Preasp plosive «ᄑ» #/ʰp/ _p_ «ᄐ» #/ʰt/ _t_ «ᄎ» #/ʰʈ/ _ţ_ «ᄏ» #/ʰk/ _k_
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Fricative «ᇪ»† #/f/ _f_ «ᇨ»† #/θ/ _z_ «ᇂ» #/h/ _h_
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«ᆺ»† #/s/ _s_
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Nasal «ᆷ»† #/m/ _m_ «ᆫ»† #/n/ _n_ «ퟋ»† #/ɳ/ _ņ_ «ᆼ»† #/ŋ/ _ŋ_
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Lateral «ᆯ»† #/l/ _l_ «ᇐ»† #/ɭ/ _ļ_
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Plosive + #/s/ «ᆹ» #/ps/ _bs_ «ퟐ» #/ts/ _ds_ «ᆪ» #/ks/ _gs_
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Nasal + #/s/ «ᇝ» #/ms/ _ms_ «ᇇ» #/ns/ _ns_ «ᇱ» #/ŋs/ _ŋs_
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Lateral + #/s/ «ᆳ» #/ɬs/ _ls_
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</div>
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Consonants marked with † become syllabic and replace a «ㅡ» #/ɯ/. Thus, Gspol («긋포ᇐ») is pronounced #/ks̩.poɭ/.
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## Vowels
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Front Back
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------------- -------------- --------------
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High «ㅣ» #/i/ _i_ «ㅡ» #/ɯ/ _ı_
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«ᅱ» #/y/ _ü_ «ᅮ» #/u/ _u_
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Mid «ᅦ» #/e/ _e_ «ᅥ» #/ɤ/ _ë_
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«ᅬ» #/ø/ _ö_ «ᅩ» #/o/ _o_
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Low «ᅢ» #/æ/ _ä_ «ᅡ» #/ɑ/ _a_
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A #/j/ between the initial and vowel is indicated the same as in Korean:
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«ᅡ» #/ɑ/ → «ᅣ» #/jɑ/, etc.
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# Politeness & formality levels
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The names ending in «엔» are adjectival verbs, and the ones ending in «헨» are locatives.
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Politeness Low Medium High Very high
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---------- --------------- ------------ ------------ -----------------
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Informal «ᄭᅩ핸» «티블엔»
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_sgohen_ _tibılen_
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low genial
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Middle «파싱엔» «승해엔»
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_pasiŋen_ _sıŋhäen_
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casual polite
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Formal «라ퟐ고엔» «쿄헨» «삼ᅙᅩᆼ엔» «라ᄴᅩᇁ 삼ᅙᅩᆼ엔»
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_ladsgoen_ _kjohen_ _samxoŋen_ _laşop samxoŋen_
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authoritarian middle respectful extremely respectful
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# Nouns
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## Particles
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After vowel After consonant
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------------ --------------- -------------------
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Absolutive «새» _sä_ «애» _ä_
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Ergative «담» _dam_ «얌» _jam_
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Instrumental «ꥢᅱ» _zü_ «휘» _hü_
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Locative «헨» _hen_ «옌» _jen_
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Ditransitive sentences have secundative marking, meaning that the recipient (the primary/"indirect" object) is marked using the absolutive, and the theme (the secondary/"direct" object) with the instrumental.
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긋:
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p: gıs
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t: n
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d:
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- (region where Gspol is mainly spoken)
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- 긋포ᇐ: Gspol
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포ᇐ:
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p: poļ
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t: n
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d:
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- language
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- speech
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잉른:
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p: iŋ·lın
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t: n
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d:
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- England
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- 잉른포ᇐ: English
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ᄰㅣᇀ:
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p: slit
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t: n
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d: person
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ᅁᅵᆸ엔:
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p: ŋgib·en
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t: v adj
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d: male
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ᅁᅵᆸᄰㅣᇀ:
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p: ŋgib·slit
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t: n
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d: man
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ᄡᅦ에엔:
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p: fe·e·en
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t: v adj
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d: female
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ᄡᅦ에ᄰㅣᇀ:
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p: fe·e·slit
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t: n
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d: woman
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ᄴᅡ엔:
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p: şa·en
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t: vi
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d: sleep
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가:
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p: ga
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t: n
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d: dog
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윰센:
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p: üm·sen
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t: vt
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d: see
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ᄭᅩ:
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p: sgo
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t: n
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d:
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- place below sth
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- ᄭᅩ헨: low
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티블엔:
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p: ti·bıl·en
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t: v adj
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d:
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- friendly
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- genial
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파싱엔:
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p: pa·siŋ·en
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t: v adj
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d: casual
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승해엔:
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p: sıŋ·hä·en
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t: v adj
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d: polite
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라ퟐ엔:
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p: lads·en
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t: vt
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d: lead
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고:
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p: go
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t: {suf: [v, n]}
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d: -er
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라ퟐ고:
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p: lads·go
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t: n
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d: leader
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라ퟐ고엔:
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p: lads·go·en
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t: v adj
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d: authoritarian
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쿄:
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p: kjo
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t: n
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d:
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- middle of sth
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- 쿄헨: in the middle
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삼ᅙᅩᆼ:
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p: sam·xoŋ
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t: n
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d:
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- respect
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- deference
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삼ᅙᅩᆼ엔:
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p: sam·xoŋ·en
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t: v adj
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d: respectful
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라ᄴᅩᇁ:
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p: la·şop
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t: adv
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d: extremely
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---
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title: Constructed languages
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hidetoc: true
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nofooter: true
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...
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[Yeah][wiki]. So far I only have one language even approaching usability:
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* __[Lántas]__ #/laːntas/, which wins the prizes for the longest I've stuck with one language, and the most detailed I've ever got with a single language. It's got _lots_ of noun inflection and a significant amount on verbs too. I was a bit obsessed with Finnish when I first started it, which might be evident. (Not just in the amount of inflection, but also in things like the unmotivated inclusion of clusters like #/ps/ and #/ks/.)
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The others have barely anything to them so far.
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* __[Tengan]__, or #(tté ŋa) #/tʼɛ˥ ŋɑ˩/, an isolating-ish language with evidentiality and clicks and a featural script (i.e. like Hangul, but not as good).
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* __[Zalajmkwély]__ #/zɑlɑɪmkweˈliː/, something initiating from a conlang-in-an-hour challenge thing but then I got kinda attached to it.
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[Lántas]: laantas/
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[Tengan]: tengan/
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[Zalajmkwély]: zalajmkwely/
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[wiki]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language
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Gimimli mathamat kihnuja namaksumasti aisina.
|
||||
{
|
||||
gimi-m-li matha-m-at kihnu-ja namaksu-m-asti ai-si-na
|
||||
time-DEF-IN world-DEF-GEN destroy-REL death-DEF-TRA be-RPST-1SG
|
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}
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|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 3.6 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
|
|||
Láhasijaðba míllanamku ibjahatul.
|
||||
{
|
||||
lá-ha-si-ja-ð-ba mílla-na-m-ku ibja-ha-tul
|
||||
do-2SG-RPST-REL-NOM-SUP know-1SG-DEF-SUB think-2SG-NEG
|
||||
You don't think I know what you've done.
|
||||
}
|
||||
Pašuja nisł kali aimat mulin suaha.
|
||||
{
|
||||
pašu-ja nis-ł ka-li ai-m-at mulin sua-ha
|
||||
break-REL thought-PL 1SG-AD be-DEF-GEN therefore say-2SG
|
||||
So you say I'm crazy.
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
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href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
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<svg width="800" height="155"
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xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
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|
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</g>
|
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|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 3.0 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
|||
Ŕ kalsudúšḿt lau ǧisat hámam sidasai, ŕ nakasnai asuraisai.
|
||||
{ [ɻ̩ ˌkaɬʲsuðuːʃm̩t lau ˌʤisat ˈxaːmam sɪðasai | ɻ̩ ˌnakasnai asuˈraisai]
|
||||
ŕ kalsu-dúš-ḿ-t lau ǧisa-t háma-m sida-sai
|
||||
and strike-3PL-DEF-GEN in_order_to fire-GEN nation-DEF come-DPST
|
||||
ŕ nakasnai asurai-sai
|
||||
and everything change-DPST
|
||||
|
||||
And the fire nation attacked, and everything changed.
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—List of abbreviations
|
||||
hidetoc: true
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
: first person
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
: second person
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
: third person
|
||||
|
||||
CAR
|
||||
: caritive case
|
||||
|
||||
ABL
|
||||
: --ablative case
|
||||
|
||||
AD
|
||||
: ad-- case
|
||||
|
||||
ADV
|
||||
: adverbial
|
||||
|
||||
AGT
|
||||
: agentive
|
||||
|
||||
APUD
|
||||
: apud-- case
|
||||
|
||||
CMP
|
||||
: comparative
|
||||
|
||||
COM
|
||||
: comitative case
|
||||
|
||||
CONJ
|
||||
: adjectival conjunction
|
||||
|
||||
DEF
|
||||
: definite
|
||||
|
||||
DIM
|
||||
: diminutive
|
||||
|
||||
DPST
|
||||
: distant past
|
||||
|
||||
EQU
|
||||
: equative
|
||||
|
||||
ESS
|
||||
: essive case
|
||||
|
||||
EXE
|
||||
: exessive case
|
||||
|
||||
FUT
|
||||
: future
|
||||
|
||||
GEN
|
||||
: genitive case
|
||||
|
||||
IN
|
||||
: in-- case
|
||||
|
||||
INS
|
||||
: instrumental case
|
||||
|
||||
INT
|
||||
: inter-- case
|
||||
|
||||
LAT
|
||||
: --lative case
|
||||
|
||||
NAGT
|
||||
: non-agentive
|
||||
|
||||
NEG
|
||||
: negative
|
||||
|
||||
NOM
|
||||
: nominaliser; (nominative case)
|
||||
|
||||
OBJ
|
||||
: object
|
||||
|
||||
PL
|
||||
: plural
|
||||
|
||||
POST
|
||||
: post-- case
|
||||
|
||||
PRE
|
||||
: pre-- case
|
||||
|
||||
PRL
|
||||
: --perlative case
|
||||
|
||||
PSV
|
||||
: passive
|
||||
|
||||
QU
|
||||
: question suffix
|
||||
|
||||
RCP
|
||||
: reciprocal
|
||||
|
||||
RFL
|
||||
: reflexive
|
||||
|
||||
RPST
|
||||
: recent past
|
||||
|
||||
SBJ
|
||||
: subject
|
||||
|
||||
SG
|
||||
: singular
|
||||
|
||||
SPL
|
||||
: superlative
|
||||
|
||||
SUB
|
||||
: sub-- case
|
||||
|
||||
SUP
|
||||
: super-- case
|
||||
|
||||
TRA
|
||||
: translative case
|
||||
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css"
|
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href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="800" height="255"
|
||||
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
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xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1"
|
||||
externalResourcesRequired="true">
|
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<g transform="translate(45.0, 60.0) scale(5.0)" class="script">
|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#d0" x="106.0" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(45.0, 150.0) scale(5.0)" class="script">
|
||||
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#bj" x="53.0" />
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#eos" x="71.0" />
|
||||
</g>
|
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|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 2.5 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
|||
{I am the first who has written novels in the Spanish language, though many have hitherto appeared among us, all of them translated from foreign authors. But these are my own, neither imitated nor stolen from anyone; my genius has engendered them, my pen has brought them forth, and they are growing up in the arms of the press.}
|
||||
|
||||
Ispanalántasla paraijað natta aina.
|
||||
{ ispana-lántas-la parai-ja-ð na-tta ai-na
|
||||
| spain-language-INS speak-REL-NOM one-ADV be-1SG
|
||||
| I am the first to write in Spanish. }
|
||||
Liččala maškutrabanł tíruli bairusailú,
|
||||
{ ličča mašku-t-raban-ł tíru-li bairu-sai-lú
|
||||
| many story-GEN-book-PL past-IN see-DPST-PSV
|
||||
| Many have already been seen among us, }
|
||||
ŕminu nakasnala ran lisla asurat lántaslin paraisailú.
|
||||
{ ŕminu nakasna-la ran lisla asura-t lántas-li-n parai-sai-lú
|
||||
| but every-INS thing again other-GEN language-IN-ABL write-DPST-PSV
|
||||
| but all of them were translated from another language. }
|
||||
Ŕ lul fasitta kat ai.
|
||||
{ ŕ lu-l fasi-tta kat ai
|
||||
| and this-PL complete-ADV 1SG;GEN be
|
||||
| But these are my own. }
|
||||
Gurubasanł júlilúfáštul, kaubasilúfáštul.
|
||||
{ guruba-sa-n-ł júli-lú-fáš-tul kauba-si-lú-fáš-tul
|
||||
| copy-AD-ABL-PL take-PSV-3PL-NEG steal-RPST-PSV-3PL-NEG
|
||||
| They aren't copies, and they weren't stolen. }
|
||||
Kat časmá lásibúš,
|
||||
{ kat časmá lá-si-búš
|
||||
| my genius make-RPST-3PL;OBJ
|
||||
| My genius created them, }
|
||||
ŕ kat ǧunai lusas júlisibúš
|
||||
{ ŕ kat ǧunai lu-sa-s júli-si-búš
|
||||
| and my pen this-AD-LAT bring-RPST-3PL;OBJ
|
||||
| my pen brought them forth, }
|
||||
ŕ samńt lirajat iššasku gḿbafáš.
|
||||
{ ŕ samń-t lira-ja-Ø-t iššas-ku gḿba-fáš
|
||||
| and ink-GEN press-REL-NOM-GEN care-SUB grow-3PL;SBJ
|
||||
| and they grow in the care of the press. }
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{ vim: set lbr : }
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css"
|
||||
href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="400" height="75"
|
||||
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1"
|
||||
externalResourcesRequired="true">
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|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#t" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#dŕ" x="5" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(48)">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#t" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#d0" x="2.5" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(30, 230)" class="word">
|
||||
<text x="15">tia</text>
|
||||
<text x="55">tua</text>
|
||||
<text x="95">tḿ</text>
|
||||
<text x="135">tń</text>
|
||||
<text x="175">tł</text>
|
||||
<text x="215">tŕ</text>
|
||||
<text x="255">–t</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 2.7 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="15" height="15" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#eop" x="-0.5" y="-1"
|
||||
transform="scale(5)" class="script" />
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 348 B |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="15" height="30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#eos" x="-2.5" y="0.5"
|
||||
transform="scale(5)" class="script" />
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 349 B |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,558 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Examples
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
# The North Wind and the Sun
|
||||
|
||||
_The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveller fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveller took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two._
|
||||
|
||||
«Ruakul naipa bahútlit aimlis
|
||||
Laksit Fuhamkas Guwanḿ asumsas ba sua.
|
||||
Gimimli ufat kukkit ippauja šikkúþł ruamiril nara.
|
||||
Šikkúþłm kukkimat rumin júlim natta abudajað
|
||||
bahútlit aimat
|
||||
laimitta šikkúbu.
|
||||
Gimimli Laksit Fuham rut bássatlit fuha,
|
||||
ŕminu hakkatta fuhafamat gimimli
|
||||
kubutta šikkúþłm kukkimat rumi ńgua.
|
||||
Mulin Laksit Fuham čaubam bulla.
|
||||
Gimimli Guwanḿ ufatta tílju,
|
||||
ŕ šikkúþłm kukkimat šutta rumin júli.
|
||||
Mulin Guwanḿ bahútlit aimat Laksit Fuham suam bulla.»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object data=northwind.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Ruakul naipa bahútlit aimlis
|
||||
ˌruə̯kɔɬʲ ˌnæɪ̯pɐ bɐˈxoːtɬɪt æɪ̯mlɪs
|
||||
rua-ku-l nai=pa bahú-t-lit ai-m-li-s
|
||||
3-SUB-PL one=what strength-GEN-SUP be-DEF-IN-ABL
|
||||
About which of them was stronger
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Laksit Fuhamkas Guwanḿ asumsas ba sua.
|
||||
ˌlaksɪt ˈfuxɑmkɑs ˈɡɔwɑnm̩ ˌasʊmsɐs bɐ ˌsuə̯
|
||||
laksi-t fuha-m-kas guwan-ḿ asu-m-sa-s ba sua
|
||||
north-GEN blow-DEF-COM sun-DEF others-DEF-AD-LAT against say
|
||||
the North Wind and the Sun were arguing.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Gimimli ufat kukkit ippauja šikkúþł ruamiril nara.
|
||||
ˌɡɛmɪmlɪ ˌufɐt ˈkɔkːɛt ˌipːɑʊ̯jɐ ˈʃikːoːθɫ̩ ˌɾuə̯mɪʑɪɬʲ ˌnarɐ
|
||||
gimi-m-li ufan-t kukki-t ippau-ja šikkú-þł rua-mi-ri-l nara
|
||||
time-DEF-IN warm-GEN coat-GEN wear-REL go-er 3-APUD-PRL-PL walk
|
||||
Then, a traveller wearing a warm coat walked past.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Šikkúþłm kukkimat rumin júlim natta abudajað
|
||||
ˌʃikːoːθɫ̩m ˈkɔkːɛmɐt ˌɾumɪn ˌjuːlɪm ˈnatːɐ ˌavʊðɐjɐθ
|
||||
šikkúþł-m kukki-m-at ru-mi-n júli-m na-tta abuda-ja-ð
|
||||
traveller-DEF coat-DEF-GEN 3SG-APUD-ABL take-DEF one-ADV cause-REL-NOM
|
||||
The one to first make the traveller remove his coat
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
bahútlit aimat
|
||||
bɐˈxoːtɬɪt æɪ̯mɐt
|
||||
bahútlit ai-m-at
|
||||
strongest be-DEF-GEN
|
||||
would be the stronger
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
laimitta šikkúbu.
|
||||
ˌlæɪ̯mɪtːɐ ˌʃikːoːvʊ
|
||||
laimi-tta šikkú-bu
|
||||
same-ADV go-3PL
|
||||
is what they agreed.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Gimimli Laksit Fuham rut bássatlitta fuha,
|
||||
ˌɡɛmɪmlɪ ˈlaksɪt ˈfuxɑm ɾʊt ˌbaːsːɐtɬɪtːɐ ˈfuxɑ
|
||||
gimimli Laksit_Fuham rut bássa-t-lit-ta fuha
|
||||
then the:North:Wind 3SG;GEN force-GEN-SUP-ADV blow
|
||||
Then the North Wind blew his hardest,
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
ŕminu hakkatta fuhafamat gimimli
|
||||
ˌɻ̩ːmɪnʊ ˌxɑkːɑtːɐ ˈfuxɑfɐmɐt ˌɡɛmɪmlɪ
|
||||
ŕ-minu hakka-tta fuha-fa-m-at gimimli
|
||||
and-still harsh-ADV blow-3SG-DEF-GEN as
|
||||
but the stronger he blew
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
kubutta šikkúþłm kukkimat rumi ńgua.
|
||||
ˌkɔvʊtːɐ ˌʃɪkːoːθɫ̩m ˌkɔkːɛmɐt ɾʊmɪ ˈŋ̩ɡɔə̯
|
||||
kubu-tta šikkúþłm kukkim-at ru-mi ńgua
|
||||
close-ADV the:traveller the:coat-GEN 3SG-APUD pull
|
||||
the closer the traveller pulled his coat around himself.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Mulin Laksit Fuham čaubam bulla.
|
||||
ˌmulɪn ˈlaksɪt ˈfuhɑm ˈtʃɑʊ̯vɐm ˌbuɫːɑ
|
||||
mu-li-n Laksit_Fuham čauba-m bulla
|
||||
that-AD-ABL the:North:Wind give_up-DEF must
|
||||
So the North Wind had to give up.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Gimimli Guwanḿ ufatta tílju,
|
||||
ɡɛˌmimlɪ ˈɡɔwɑnm̩ ʊˈfatːɐ ˌtɪːljʊ
|
||||
gimimli Guwanḿ ufan-tta tílju
|
||||
then the:sun warm-ADV shine
|
||||
Then the Sun shone out warmly,
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
ŕ šikkúþłm kukkimat šutta rumin júli.
|
||||
ɻ̩ː ˌʃikːoːθl̩m ˈkɔkːɛmɐt ˈʃutːɐ ˌɾumɪn ˌjyːlɪ
|
||||
ŕ šikkúþłm kukkimat šun-tta ru-mi-n júli
|
||||
and the:traveller the:coat:GEN immediate-ADV 3SG-APUD-ABL take
|
||||
and immediately the traveller took off his coat.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Mulin Guwanḿ bahútlit aimat Laksit Fuham suam bulla.
|
||||
ˌmulɪn ˈɡɔwɑnm̩ bɐˌxoːtɬɪt æɪ̯mɐt ˈlaksɪt ˈfuxɑm suɐ̯m ˌbuɫːɐ
|
||||
mulin Guwanḿ bahútlit ai-m-at Laksit_Fuham sua-m bulla
|
||||
so the:Sun strongest be-DEF-GEN the:North:Wind say-DEF must
|
||||
So the North Wind had to say that the Sun was the stronger.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
# Long-time nuclear waste warning message
|
||||
|
||||
> Long-time nuclear waste warning messages are intended to deter human intrusion
|
||||
> at nuclear waste repositories in the far future, within or above the order of
|
||||
> magnitude of 10,000 years. Nuclear semiotics is an interdisciplinary field of
|
||||
> research, first done by the Human Interference Task Force since 1981.
|
||||
>
|
||||
> —[Wikipedia](https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-time_nuclear_waste_warning_messages)
|
||||
|
||||
- [This place is a message... and part of a system of messages ...pay attention
|
||||
to it!](#nuc1)
|
||||
- Sending this message was important to us. We considered ourselves to be a
|
||||
powerful culture.
|
||||
- This place is not a place of honor ... no highly esteemed deed is commemorated
|
||||
here... nothing valued is here.
|
||||
- What is here was dangerous and repulsive to us. This message is a warning
|
||||
about danger.
|
||||
- The danger is in a particular location... it increases towards a center... the
|
||||
center of danger is here... of a particular size and shape, and below us.
|
||||
- The danger is still present, in your time, as it was in ours.
|
||||
- The danger is to the body, and it can kill.
|
||||
- The form of the danger is an emanation of energy.
|
||||
- The danger is unleashed only if you substantially disturb this place
|
||||
physically.
|
||||
- This place is best shunned and left uninhabited.
|
||||
|
||||
**#(Luð fasḿ sua ai. Suatł kaubat jat ai. Mansihášbum bulla.)**
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Luð fasḿ sua ai.
|
||||
ˈluθ ˈfasm̩ ˈsuə̯ ai̯
|
||||
lu-ð fas-ḿ sua-Ø ai
|
||||
this-ADJ place-DEF say-N be
|
||||
This place is a message.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Suatł kaubat jat ai.
|
||||
ˌsuə̯tɫ̩ kɑo̯vɐt ˌjat ai̯
|
||||
sua-Ø-t-ł kauba-t jat ai
|
||||
say-N-GEN-PL group-GEN piece be
|
||||
It is one of a series of messages.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Mansihášbum bulla.
|
||||
ˈmansixɑːʒbʊm ˌbuɫːə
|
||||
mansi-háš-bu-m bulla
|
||||
understand-2PL-3SG-DEF must
|
||||
You must pay attention to it.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
### Luð suamat suam ausut aim ibjasináš. Bahút núl ainášḿ ibjasináš.
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Luð suamat suam ausut aim ibjasináš.
|
||||
lu-ð sua-Ø-m-at sua-m ausu-t ai-m ibja-si-náš
|
||||
this-ADJ say-N-DEF-GEN say-DEF important-GEN be-DEF believe-PST-1PL
|
||||
We thought it important to leave this message.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Bahút núl ainášḿ ibjasináš.
|
||||
bahú-t núl ai-náš-ḿ ibja-si-náš
|
||||
strong-GEN person-PL be-1PL-DEF believe-PST-1PL
|
||||
We believed ourselves to be powerful people.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
### Luð fasḿsa šit lá sawaitul.
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Luð fasḿsa šit lá sawaitul.
|
||||
lu-ð fas-ḿ-sa ši-t lá sawai-tul
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
# Test sentences
|
||||
|
||||
([Source](http://web.archive.org/web/20120427054736/http://fiziwig.com/conlang/syntax_tests.html))
|
||||
|
||||
<div>
|
||||
<style scope>
|
||||
p { margin-bottom: 0; }
|
||||
.gloss { margin-top: 6pt; }
|
||||
</style>
|
||||
|
||||
1. The sun shines.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿ tílju.
|
||||
guwan-ḿ tílju
|
||||
sun-DEF shine
|
||||
The sun shines.
|
||||
```
|
||||
2. The sun is shining.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Sá guwanḿ tílju.
|
||||
sá guwanḿ tílju
|
||||
now the:sun shine
|
||||
The sun is shining now.
|
||||
```
|
||||
3. The sun shone.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿ tíljusai.
|
||||
guwanḿ tílju-sai
|
||||
the:sun shine-DPST
|
||||
The sun shone.
|
||||
```
|
||||
4. The sun will shine.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿ tíljumá.
|
||||
guwanḿ tílju-má
|
||||
the:sun shine-FUT
|
||||
The sun will shine.
|
||||
```
|
||||
5. The sun has been shining.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿ tíljusi.
|
||||
guwanḿ tílju-si
|
||||
the:sun shine-RPST
|
||||
The sun shone recently.
|
||||
```
|
||||
6. The sun is shining again.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿ lisla tílju.
|
||||
guwanḿ lis-la tílju
|
||||
the:sun new-INS shine
|
||||
The sun is shining again.
|
||||
```
|
||||
7. The sun will shine tomorrow.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿgi guwanḿ tíljumá.
|
||||
guwan-ḿ-gi guwanḿ tíljumá
|
||||
day-DEF-POST;ESS the:sun will:shine
|
||||
The sun will shine tomorrow.
|
||||
```
|
||||
8. The sun shines brightly.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Guwanḿ tílju ufatta.
|
||||
guwanḿ tílju ufa(n)-tta
|
||||
the:sun shine bright-ADV
|
||||
The sun shines brightly (or warmly).
|
||||
```
|
||||
9. The bright sun shines.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Ufat guwanḿ tílju.
|
||||
ufa(n)-t guwanḿ tílju
|
||||
bright-GEN the:sun shine
|
||||
The bright/warm sun shines.
|
||||
```
|
||||
10. The sun is rising now.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Sá guwanḿ bisisidu.
|
||||
sá guwanḿ bisi-sidu
|
||||
now the:sun raise-RFL
|
||||
Now the sun is rising.
|
||||
```
|
||||
11. All the people shouted.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Nakasnala númł miaššasi.
|
||||
nakasnala nú-m-ł miašša-si
|
||||
every;INS person-DEF-PL shout-RPST
|
||||
All of the people shouted.
|
||||
```
|
||||
12. Some of the people shouted.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Nala númł miaššasi.
|
||||
nala númł miaššasi
|
||||
one;INS the:people shouted
|
||||
Some of the people shouted.
|
||||
```
|
||||
13. Many of the people shouted twice.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Liččala númł patta miaššasi.
|
||||
Ličča-la númł pa(s)-tta miaššasi
|
||||
many-INS the:people two-ADV shouted
|
||||
Many of the people shouted twice.
|
||||
```
|
||||
14. Happy people often shout.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Líbit númł tutim miašša.
|
||||
líbi(s)-t númł tutim miašša
|
||||
happy-GEN the:people often shout
|
||||
Happy people often shout.
|
||||
```
|
||||
15. The kitten jumped up.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Kalnišḿ šisas niasgasi.
|
||||
kalń-iš-ḿ ši-sa-s niasga-si
|
||||
cat-DIM-DEF high-AD-LAT jump-RPST
|
||||
The kitten jumped up.
|
||||
```
|
||||
16. The kitten jumped onto the table.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Kalnišḿ lahmisḿsas niasgasi.
|
||||
kalńišḿ lahmis-ḿ-sa-s niasgasi
|
||||
the:kitten table-DEF-AD-LAT jumped
|
||||
The kitten jumped onto the table
|
||||
```
|
||||
17. My little kitten walked away.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Katas milnut kalnišḿ lusan narasi.
|
||||
kat-as milnu-t kalńišḿ lu-sa-n nara-si
|
||||
my-CONJ little-GEN the:kitten this-AD-ABL walk-RPST
|
||||
My little kitten walked away from here.
|
||||
```
|
||||
18. It's raining.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Tippi santu.
|
||||
tippi santu
|
||||
water rains
|
||||
It's raining.
|
||||
```
|
||||
19. The rain came down.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Santutippi kisas kassasi.
|
||||
santu-tippi ki-sa-s kassa-si
|
||||
rain-water down-AD-LAT fall-RPST
|
||||
Rain fell down.
|
||||
```
|
||||
20. The kitten is playing in the rain.
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Kalnišḿ lut gimimli warai tippim santum.
|
||||
kalnišḿ lut gimi-m-li warai tippi santu-m
|
||||
the:kitten this;GEN time-DEF-IN play water rain-DEF
|
||||
The kitten plays while it rains.
|
||||
```
|
||||
<!--
|
||||
21. The rain has stopped.
|
||||
22. Soon the rain will stop.
|
||||
23. I hope the rain stops soon.
|
||||
24. Once wild animals lived here.
|
||||
25. Slowly she looked around.
|
||||
26. Go away!
|
||||
27. Let's go!
|
||||
28. You should go.
|
||||
29. I will be happy to go.
|
||||
30. He will arrive soon.
|
||||
31. The baby's ball has rolled away.
|
||||
32. The two boys are working together.
|
||||
33. This mist will probably clear away.
|
||||
34. Lovely flowers are growing everywhere.
|
||||
35. We should eat more slowly.
|
||||
36. You have come too soon.
|
||||
37. You must write more neatly.
|
||||
38. Directly opposite stands a wonderful palace.
|
||||
39. Henry's dog is lost.
|
||||
40. My cat is black.
|
||||
41. The little girl's doll is broken.
|
||||
42. I usually sleep soundly.
|
||||
43. The children ran after Jack.
|
||||
44. I can play after school.
|
||||
45. We went to the village for a visit.
|
||||
46. We arrived at the river.
|
||||
47. I have been waiting for you.
|
||||
48. The campers sat around the fire.
|
||||
49. A little girl with a kitten sat near me.
|
||||
50. The child waited at the door for her father.
|
||||
51. Yesterday the oldest girl in the village lost her kitten.
|
||||
52. Were you born in this village?
|
||||
53. Can your brother dance well?
|
||||
54. Did the man leave?
|
||||
55. Is your sister coming for you?
|
||||
56. Can you come tomorrow?
|
||||
57. Have the neighbors gone away for the winter?
|
||||
58. Does the robin sing in the rain?
|
||||
59. Are you going with us to the concert?
|
||||
60. Have you ever travelled in the jungle?
|
||||
61. We sailed down the river for several miles.
|
||||
62. Everybody knows about hunting.
|
||||
63. On a Sunny morning after the solstice we started for the mountains.
|
||||
64. Tom laughed at the monkey's tricks.
|
||||
65. An old man with a walking stick stood beside the fence.
|
||||
66. The squirrel's nest was hidden by drooping boughs.
|
||||
67. The little seeds waited patiently under the snow for the warm spring sun.
|
||||
68. Many little girls with wreaths of flowers on their heads danced around the bonfire.
|
||||
69. The cover of the basket fell to the floor.
|
||||
70. The first boy in the line stopped at the entrance.
|
||||
71. On the top of the hill in a little hut lived a wise old woman.
|
||||
72. During our residence in the country we often walked in the pastures.
|
||||
73. When will your guests from the city arrive?
|
||||
74. Near the mouth of the river, its course turns sharply towards the East.
|
||||
75. Between the two lofty mountains lay a fertile valley.
|
||||
76. Among the wheat grew tall red poppies.
|
||||
77. The strong roots of the oak trees were torn from the ground.
|
||||
78. The sun looked down through the branches upon the children at play.
|
||||
79. The west wind blew across my face like a friendly caress.
|
||||
80. The spool of thread rolled across the floor.
|
||||
81. A box of growing plants stood in the Window.
|
||||
82. I am very happy.
|
||||
83. These oranges are juicy.
|
||||
84. Sea water is salty.
|
||||
85. The streets are full of people.
|
||||
86. Sugar tastes sweet.
|
||||
87. The fire feels hot.
|
||||
88. The little girl seemed lonely.
|
||||
89. The little boy's father had once been a sailor.
|
||||
90. I have lost my blanket.
|
||||
91. A robin has built his nest in the apple tree.
|
||||
92. At noon we ate our lunch by the roadside.
|
||||
93. Mr. Jones made a knife for his little boy.
|
||||
94. Their voices sound very happy.
|
||||
95. Is today Monday?
|
||||
96. Have all the leaves fallen from the tree?
|
||||
97. Will you be ready on time?
|
||||
98. Will you send this message for me?
|
||||
99. Are you waiting for me?
|
||||
100. Is this the first kitten of the litter?
|
||||
101. Are these shoes too big for you?
|
||||
102. How wide is the River?
|
||||
103. Listen.
|
||||
104. Sit here by me.
|
||||
105. Keep this secret until tomorrow.
|
||||
106. Come with us.
|
||||
107. Bring your friends with you.
|
||||
108. Be careful.
|
||||
109. Have some tea.
|
||||
110. Pip and his dog were great friends.
|
||||
111. John and Elizabeth are brother and sister.
|
||||
112. You and I will go together.
|
||||
113. They opened all the doors and windows.
|
||||
114. He is small, but strong.
|
||||
115. Is this tree an oak or a maple?
|
||||
116. Does the sky look blue or gray?
|
||||
117. Come with your father or mother.
|
||||
118. I am tired, but very happy.
|
||||
119. He played a tune on his wonderful flute.
|
||||
120. Toward the end of August the days grow much shorter.
|
||||
121. A company of soldiers marched over the hill and across the meadow.
|
||||
122. The first part of the story is very interesting.
|
||||
123. The crow dropped some pebbles into the pitcher and raised the water to the brim.
|
||||
124. The baby clapped her hands and laughed in glee.
|
||||
125. Stop your game and be quiet.
|
||||
126. The sound of the drums grew louder and louder.
|
||||
127. Do you like summer or winter better?
|
||||
128. That boy will have a wonderful trip.
|
||||
129. They popped corn, and then sat around the fire and ate it.
|
||||
130. They won the first two games, but lost the last one.
|
||||
131. Take this note, carry it to your mother; and wait for an answer.
|
||||
132. I awoke early, dressed hastily, and went down to breakfast.
|
||||
133. Aha! I have caught you!
|
||||
134. This string is too short!
|
||||
135. Oh, dear! the wind has blown my hat away!
|
||||
136. Alas! that news is sad indeed!
|
||||
137. Whew! that cold wind freezes my nose!
|
||||
138. Are you warm enough now?
|
||||
139. They heard the warning too late.
|
||||
140. We are a brave people, and love our country.
|
||||
141. All the children came except Mary.
|
||||
142. Jack seized a handful of pebbles and threw them into the lake.
|
||||
143. This cottage stood on a low hill, at some distance from the village.
|
||||
144. On a fine summer evening, the two old people were sitting outside the door of their cottage.
|
||||
145. Our bird's name is Jacko.
|
||||
146. The river knows the way to the sea.
|
||||
147. The boat sails away, like a bird on the wing.
|
||||
148. They looked cautiously about, but saw nothing.
|
||||
149. The little house had three rooms, a sitting room, a bedroom, and a tiny kitchen.
|
||||
150. We visited my uncle's village, the largest village in the world.
|
||||
151. We learn something new each day.
|
||||
152. The market begins five minutes earlier this week.
|
||||
153. Did you find the distance too great?
|
||||
154. Hurry, children.
|
||||
155. Madam, I will obey your command.
|
||||
156. Here under this tree they gave their guests a splendid feast.
|
||||
157. In winter I get up at night, and dress by yellow candlelight.
|
||||
158. Tell the last part of that story again.
|
||||
159. Be quick or you will be too late.
|
||||
160. Will you go with us or wait here?
|
||||
161. She was always, shabby, often ragged, and on cold days very uncomfortable.
|
||||
162. Think first and then act.
|
||||
163. I stood, a little mite of a girl, upon a chair by the window, and watched the falling snowflakes.
|
||||
164. Show the guests these shells, my son, and tell them their strange history.
|
||||
165. Be satisfied with nothing but your best.
|
||||
166. We consider them our faithful friends.
|
||||
167. We will make this place our home.
|
||||
168. The squirrels make their nests warm and snug with soft moss and leaves.
|
||||
169. The little girl made the doll's dress herself.
|
||||
170. I hurt myself.
|
||||
171. She was talking to herself.
|
||||
172. He proved himself trustworthy.
|
||||
173. We could see ourselves in the water.
|
||||
174. Do it yourself.
|
||||
175. I feel ashamed of myself.
|
||||
176. Sit here by yourself.
|
||||
177. The dress of the little princess was embroidered with roses, the national flower of the Country.
|
||||
178. They wore red caps, the symbol of liberty.
|
||||
179. With him as our protector, we fear no danger.
|
||||
180. All her finery, lace, ribbons, and feathers, was packed away in a trunk.
|
||||
181. Light he thought her, like a feather.
|
||||
182. Every spring and fall our cousins pay us a long visit.
|
||||
183. In our climate the grass remains green all winter.
|
||||
184. The boy who brought the book has gone.
|
||||
185. These are the flowers that you ordered.
|
||||
186. I have lost the book that you gave me.
|
||||
187. The fisherman who owned the boat now demanded payment.
|
||||
188. Come when you are called.
|
||||
189. I shall stay at home if it rains.
|
||||
190. When he saw me, he stopped.
|
||||
191. Do not laugh at me because I seem so absent minded.
|
||||
192. I shall lend you the books that you need.
|
||||
193. Come early next Monday if you can.
|
||||
194. If you come early, wait in the hall.
|
||||
195. I had a younger brother whose name was Antonio.
|
||||
196. Gnomes are little men who live under the ground.
|
||||
197. He is loved by everybody, because he has a gentle disposition.
|
||||
198. Hold the horse while I run and get my cap.
|
||||
199. I have found the ring I lost.
|
||||
200. Play and I will sing.
|
||||
201. That is the funniest story I ever heard.
|
||||
202. She is taller than her brother.
|
||||
203. They are no wiser than we.
|
||||
204. Light travels faster than sound.
|
||||
205. We have more time than they.
|
||||
206. She has more friends than enemies.
|
||||
207. He was very poor, and with his wife and five children lived in a little low cabin of logs and stones.
|
||||
208. When the wind blew, the traveller wrapped his mantle more closely around him.
|
||||
209. I am sure that we can go.
|
||||
210. We went back to the place where we saw the roses.
|
||||
211. "This tree is fifty feet high," said the gardener.
|
||||
212. I think that this train leaves five minutes earlier today.
|
||||
213. My opinion is that the governor will grant him a pardon.
|
||||
214. Why he has left the city is a mystery.
|
||||
215. The house stands where three roads meet.
|
||||
216. He has far more money than brains.
|
||||
217. Evidently that gate is never opened, for the long grass and the great hemlocks grow close against it.
|
||||
218. I met a little cottage girl; she was eight years old, she said.
|
||||
-->
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas
|
||||
hidetoc: true
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
<style>
|
||||
h1::before, h2::before, h3::before { content: "" !important; }
|
||||
</style>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object data="laantas.svg"></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
This grammar has finally got so long it is worth splitting it into several pages.
|
||||
|
||||
# Contents
|
||||
|
||||
#. [Phonology](phonology.html)
|
||||
#. [Writing system](script.html)
|
||||
#. [Nouns](nouns.html)
|
||||
#. [Pronouns & demonstratives](pronouns.html)
|
||||
#. [Verbs](verbs.html)
|
||||
#. [Numbers](numbers.html)
|
||||
#. [Personal Names](names.html)
|
||||
#. [Syntax](syntax.html) (not done yet)
|
||||
#. [Examples](examples.html)
|
||||
#. [List of abbreviations](abbrevs.html)
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="405" height="200" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(65, 25) scale(5)" class="script">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#a" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#á" x="6" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#i" x="15" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#í" x="26" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#u" x="37" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ú" x="48" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(65, 70)" class="word">
|
||||
<text>a</text>
|
||||
<text x="38">á</text>
|
||||
<text x="87">i</text>
|
||||
<text x="144">í</text>
|
||||
<text x="197">u</text>
|
||||
<text x="256">ú</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5, 135) scale(5)" class="script">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ai" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#au" x="11" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ia" x="21" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ua" x="32" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ḿ" x="43" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ń" x="55" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ł" x="64" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#ŕ" x="74" />
|
||||
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5, 185)" class="word">
|
||||
<text x="12">ai</text>
|
||||
<text x="67">au</text>
|
||||
<text x="119">ia</text>
|
||||
<text x="174">ua</text>
|
||||
<text x="229">ḿ</text>
|
||||
<text x="285">ń</text>
|
||||
<text x="330">ł</text>
|
||||
<text x="385">ŕ</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.5 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="202" height="90" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1"
|
||||
externalResourcesRequired="true">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5,5) scale(8)" class="script">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#l" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#dá" x="5" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#nt" x="6" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#da" x="16" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#s" x="17" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#d0" x="19.5" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 615 B |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css"
|
||||
href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="1000" height="155"
|
||||
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1"
|
||||
externalResourcesRequired="true">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5.0, 20.0) scale(5.0)" class="script">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#k" x="0.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#da" x="5.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#š" x="7.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#dń" x="12.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#k" x="19.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#di" x="24.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#š" x="26.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#di" x="31.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#k" x="33.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#da" x="38.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#s" x="40.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#d0" x="42.5" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#k" x="52.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#dai" x="57.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#t" x="59.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#d0" x="62.25" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#ai" x="71.0" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5.0, 100.0) scale(5.0)" class="script">
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.3 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
|
|||
kaitlit waišat laðasjuakas puppanua fímat ahnanáš
|
||||
ausujuajuat gulmisari purailúja guabut purai
|
||||
iksala parailúja mašku, násná raušgil lisla paraim mapsusináš
|
||||
bahnit bais baudat sua dansu ŕ kifat suafa
|
||||
|
||||
waišala mapsusifa
|
||||
nalapa lásidusifa?
|
||||
waišala mapsusifa
|
||||
násná dagusal maimáfamat ibjana
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Personal Names
|
||||
hidetoc: true
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
Names in Lántas can be very long in their full form, containing multiple
|
||||
goneonymics[^goneo] (names referring to their parents, biological or
|
||||
otherwise); at least one given name, usually two; several adjectival epithets;
|
||||
and a toponym (referring to the town where they grew up), in that order. An
|
||||
example of a full name is «Mafitsuš Kampatsuš Mammu Šamni Bahút Tamnissa-Amat
|
||||
Gappatkirḿlin» meaning, in order, "Child of Mafi (mother), Child of Kampa
|
||||
(father), Mammu Šamni, Strong, Loyal to their Family, from Gappatkir". In most
|
||||
situations they would be referred to as either Mammu or Šamni depending on
|
||||
their preference. Many names are even longer than this; as a culture, Lántas
|
||||
speakers take significant pride in giving their children particularly long
|
||||
names. The given names themselves have no inherent meaning or gender bias, but
|
||||
names are frequently reused within a family.
|
||||
|
||||
[^goneo]: Full disclosure: I made this word up.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,426 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css"
|
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href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="700" height="766"
|
||||
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
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xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1"
|
||||
externalResourcesRequired="true">
|
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<g transform="translate(5.0, 17.0) scale(4.0)" class="script">
|
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<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#r" x="0.0" />
|
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<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#dua" x="5.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#k" x="7.0" />
|
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<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#du" x="12.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#l" x="14.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#d0" x="16.5" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#n" x="26.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#dai" x="31.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#p" x="33.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#da" x="38.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#b" x="45.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#da" x="51.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#h" x="53.0" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="/lang/laantas/defs.svg#dú" x="61.0" />
|
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After Width: | Height: | Size: 22 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
|
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Ruakul naipa bahútlit aimlis
|
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Laksit Fuhamkas Guwanḿ asumsas ba sua.
|
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Gimimli ufat kukkit ippauja šikkúþł ruamiril nara.
|
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Šikkúþłm kukkimat rumin júlim natta abudajað
|
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bahútlit aimat
|
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laimitta suabu.
|
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Gimimli Laksit Fuham rut bássatlit fuha,
|
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ŕminu hakkatta fuhafamat gimimli
|
||||
kubutta šikkúþłm kukkimat rumi ńgua.
|
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Mulin Laksit Fuham čaubam bulla.
|
||||
Gimimli Guwanḿ ufatta tílju,
|
||||
ŕ šikkúþłm kukkimat šutta rumin júli.
|
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Mulin Guwanḿ bahútlit aimat Laksit Fuham suam bulla.
|
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|
|
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<text x="37">Laksit</text>
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<text x="235">Guwanḿ</text>
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<text x="325">asumsas</text>
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|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#m" x="89" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#d0" x="92" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#eos" x="97" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5,170)" class="word">
|
||||
<text x="25">rualla</text>
|
||||
<text x="91">naipa</text>
|
||||
<text x="179">bahútlit</text>
|
||||
<text x="265">aim.</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 3.3 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,375 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Nouns
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns are the words which name and refer to specific entities. Lántas is unusual in that words which are often considered to form a separate "adjective" class, or, occasionally, a subset of verbs, are also (the genitive case of) nouns.
|
||||
|
||||
# Number
|
||||
|
||||
The basic form of a noun is its singular, in all cases. The plural is formed by adding:
|
||||
|
||||
* «-al» to a word ending in «l» or «ł»,
|
||||
* «-l» to a word ending in a vowel, or
|
||||
* «-ł» to a word ending in a consonant, syllabic or not, other than «l».
|
||||
|
||||
This plural form can also be applied to names of people. In this case it forms what is called an _associative plural_, and refers to a person plus a group associated with them, usually their family or friend group.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
ǧunail
|
||||
ǧunai-l
|
||||
stick-PL
|
||||
sticks
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Jánimł
|
||||
Jáni-m-ł
|
||||
John-DEF-PL
|
||||
John and his friends
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
# Core cases {#corecases}
|
||||
|
||||
Declension for the core cases of «nú» 'man' and «lun» 'road' are shown below. Some of the endings are slightly different in the case of a stem ending in a consonant or vowel, and if the ending starts with multiple consonants the final one of the stem is dropped.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
| | Singular | Plural |
|
||||
|----------------------:|:---------|:-----------|
|
||||
| Nominative #!(NOM)! | «nú» | «nú·l» |
|
||||
| Genitive #!(GEN)! | «nú·t» | «nú·t·ł» |
|
||||
| Comitative #!(COM)! | «nú·kas» | «nú·kas·ł» |
|
||||
| Caritive #!(CAR)! | «nú·ssa» | «nú·ssa·l» |
|
||||
| Instrumental #!(INS)! | «nú·la» | «nú·la·l» |
|
||||
| Essive #!(ESS)! | «nú·gu» | «nú·gu·l» |
|
||||
| Translative #!(TRA)! | «nú·sti» | «nú·sti·l» |
|
||||
| Exessive #!(EXE)! | «nú·ču» | «nú·ču·l» |
|
||||
|
||||
| | Singular | Plural |
|
||||
|-------:|:--------------|:----------------|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | «lun» | «lun·ł» |
|
||||
| #!GEN! | «lu~~n~~·t» | «lun·t·ł» |
|
||||
| #!COM! | «lun·kas» | «lun·kas·ł» |
|
||||
| #!CAR! | «lu~~n~~·ssa» | «lu~~n~~·ssa·l» |
|
||||
| #!INS! | «lun·la» | «lun·la·l» |
|
||||
| #!ESS! | «lun·gu» | «lun·gu·l» |
|
||||
| #!TRA! | «lu~~n~~·sti» | «lu~~n~~·sti·l» |
|
||||
| #!EXE! | «lun·ču» | «lun·ču·l» |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
The _nominative_ is the subject of sentences, and the unmarked form. The _genitive_ is used for the object of sentences, the possessive, and for modifying other nouns (see [below](#adjectivals)).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Jánim línait bairusi.
|
||||
Jáni-m línai-t bairu-si
|
||||
John-DEF mouse-GEN see-RPST
|
||||
John saw a mouse.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Jánimat línai
|
||||
Jáni-ma-t línai
|
||||
John-DEF-GEN mouse
|
||||
John's mouse
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
ausut línai
|
||||
ausu-t línai
|
||||
large-GEN mouse
|
||||
a large mouse
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
For _inalienable_ possession (body parts, family members, etc), the [definite](#definiteness) is usually used instead of an explicit genitive construction.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Nattumatł bairusina.
|
||||
nattu-ma-t-ł bairu-si-na
|
||||
parent-DEF-GEN-PL see-PST-1SG
|
||||
I saw my [the] parents.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
The _comitative_ case is used for 'and' between two nouns, as well as 'with' in the sense of 'accompanied by'. It is used on all but the _last_ noun being conjoined, with the last one taking the semantic case for the whole sequence. The opposite case, the _caritive_, means 'without', and is also used for _negative_ possessive statements. (See the adessive, described below, for affirmative statements.)
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
suksł ká
|
||||
suksł ká
|
||||
they;COM I
|
||||
they and I
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Kalńkas þasit bairusina.
|
||||
kalń-kas þasi-t bairu-si-na
|
||||
cat-COM dog-GEN see-RPST-1SG
|
||||
I saw a cat and a dog.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Sairiassa aina.
|
||||
sairia-ssa ai-na
|
||||
money-CAR be-1SG
|
||||
I don't have any money.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Kat fadaukas ká rut ǧimamlis šikkúsi.
|
||||
kat fadau-kas ká rut ǧima-m-li-s šikkú-si
|
||||
my friend-COM I his house-DEF-IN-LAT go-RPST
|
||||
I went with my friend to his house.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The most common use of the _instrumental_ case is the [theme] of ditransitive sentences (while the recipient is in the genitive). It is also used for 'with' as in 'using', in distributive phrases such as «kallila» 'in threes, in sets of three, three each', for quantity expressions such as units, and quantifiers like 'every'.
|
||||
|
||||
[theme]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundative_language
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Sanǧula paraina.
|
||||
sanǧu-la parai-na
|
||||
pen-INS write-1SG
|
||||
I write with a pen.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
kalli litrala tippi
|
||||
kalli litra-la tippi
|
||||
three litre-INS water
|
||||
three litres of water
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
nakasnala hámal
|
||||
nakasnala háma-l
|
||||
every;INS country-PL
|
||||
every country
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
nala núl
|
||||
nala nú-l
|
||||
any;INS person-PL
|
||||
some people
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
nai rala númł
|
||||
nai ra(n)-la nú-m-ł
|
||||
one thing-INS person-DEF-PL
|
||||
one of the people
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
nala númł
|
||||
nala nú-m-ł
|
||||
any;INS person-DEF-PL
|
||||
some of the people
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
The _essive_ case indicates a state, while the _translative_ and _exessive_ cases indicate a change of state. The translative marks the new state, and the exessive the old. The essive and exessive are most commonly used with comparatives (see [below](#adjectivals)).
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO: examples__
|
||||
|
||||
# Locational cases
|
||||
|
||||
The locational cases are formed by pairs of suffixes, one for the type of
|
||||
motion and one for the orientation or part of the target object.[^tsez]
|
||||
Unlike for the core cases, the endings are the same regardless of whether the
|
||||
stem ends in a consonant or vowel, so they are only listed for «nú».
|
||||
|
||||
These cases have formulaic names, e.g., 'adessive' (at), 'absuperlative' (from above), and so on.
|
||||
|
||||
[^tsez]: You might think that this sounds too mathematical or artificial to occur in a natural language, but in fact some Caucasian languages, such as [Tsez] and [Archi], do exactly this.
|
||||
|
||||
[Tsez]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez_language "Tsez on Wikipedia"
|
||||
[Archi]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archi_language "Archi on Wikipedia"
|
||||
|
||||
* _ad--_ (_al--_): 'at'
|
||||
* _in--_ (_il--_): 'in'
|
||||
* _pre--_: 'in front of'
|
||||
* _post--_: 'behind'
|
||||
* _inter--_: 'between' or 'among'
|
||||
* _super--_: 'on top of' or 'over'
|
||||
* _sub--_: 'below' or 'under'
|
||||
* _apud--_: 'near' or 'next to'
|
||||
* _--essive_: 'at' or 'on'
|
||||
* _--lative_: 'towards'
|
||||
* _ab--lative_: 'away from'
|
||||
* _per--lative_: 'through' or 'along'
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
| | | Essive (ESS) | Lative (LAT) | Ab--lative (ABL) | Per--lative (PRL) |
|
||||
|-----------:|------:|--------------|--------------|------------------|-------------------|
|
||||
| Ad– | #!SG! | «nú·sa» | «nú·sa·s» | «nú·sa·n» | «nú·sa·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(AD)! | #!PL! | «nú·sa·l» | «nú·sa·s·ł» | «nú·sa·n·ł» | «nú·sa·ri·l» |
|
||||
| In– | #!SG! | «nú·li» | «nú·li·s» | «nú·li·n» | «nú·li·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(IN)! | #!PL! | «nú·li·l» | «nú·li·s·ł» | «nú·li·n·ł» | «nú·li·ri·l» |
|
||||
| Pre– | #!SG! | «nú·ðu» | «nú·ðu·s» | «nú·ðu·n» | «nú·ðu·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(PRE)! | #!PL! | «nú·ðu·l» | «nú·ðu·s·ł» | «nú·ðu·n·ł» | «nú·ðu·ri·l» |
|
||||
| Post– | #!SG! | «nú·gi» | «nú·gi·s» | «nú·gi·n» | «nú·gi·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(POST)! | #!PL! | «nú·gi·l» | «nú·gi·s·ł» | «nú·gi·n·ł» | «nú·gi·ri·l» |
|
||||
| Inter– | #!SG! | «nú·nua» | «nú·nua·s» | «nú·nua·n» | «nú·nua·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(INTER)! | #!PL! | «nú·nua·l» | «nú·nua·s·ł» | «nú·nua·n·ł» | «nú·nua·ri·l» |
|
||||
| Super– | #!SG! | «nú·ba» | «nú·ba·s» | «nú·ba·n» | «nú·ba·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(SUPER)! | #!PL! | «nú·ba·l» | «nú·ba·s·ł» | «nú·ba·n·ł» | «nú·ba·ri·l» |
|
||||
| Sub– | #!SG! | «nú·ku» | «nú·ku·s» | «nú·ku·n» | «nú·ku·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(SUB)! | #!PL! | «nú·ku·l» | «nú·ku·s·ł» | «nú·ku·n·ł» | «nú·ku·ri·l» |
|
||||
| Apud– | #!SG! | «nú·mi» | «nú·mi·s» | «nú·mi·n» | «nú·mi·ri» |
|
||||
| #!(APUD)! | #!PL! | «nú·mi·l» | «nú·mi·s·ł» | «nú·mi·n·ł» | «nú·mi·ri·l» |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
* Subessive is used for:
|
||||
* 'in the opinion of': «Kaku manifnut ai.» That's pleasant to me/I like that.
|
||||
- Superessive is used for:
|
||||
- 'about': «Suba jaisi fína.» I dreamt about you.
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- -->
|
||||
|
||||
* \#!(AD--LAT)! «Dufnamsas júlisina.» I stuck it onto the wall.
|
||||
* \#!(AD--ESS)! «Ǧimamsa aihapa?» Are you at home?
|
||||
* \#!(IN--LAT)! «Sihamgit ǧimamlis šikkúmána.» I'll be going home soon.
|
||||
* \#!(PRE--PRL)! «Sabut kalń káðuri narasi.» A black cat passed in front of me.
|
||||
* \#!(POST--ESS)! «Ǧimamgi waibifás.» They're playing round the back of the house.
|
||||
* \#!(AD--PRL)! «Lunsari šikkúsina.» I went down the road.
|
||||
* \#!(IN--PRL)! «Lunliri šikkúsina.» I went across the road.
|
||||
* \#!(APUD--PRL)! «Lunmiri šikkúsina.» I followed (alongside) the river.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The orientation suffixes give rise to the following words:
|
||||
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
- «fansað»: surface
|
||||
- «fanlið»: interior
|
||||
- «fanduð»: front
|
||||
- «fangið»: back
|
||||
- «fannuað»: company
|
||||
- «fambað»: top
|
||||
- «fankuð»: bottom
|
||||
- «fammið»: vicinity
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Definiteness
|
||||
|
||||
The definite suffix for nouns (DEF) is «-m», and is used more frequently than 'the' in English. For example, in the second sentence below Sam has one dog, and in the third he is implied to have several. The names of people and places are also definite.
|
||||
|
||||
After a consonant or «-ń», the definite suffix is «-ḿ»; the sequence «ńḿ» is pronounced as a single syllable, as #/nm̩/. After «-m» or «-ḿ», the suffix is «-am». The definite suffix occurs _between_ the stem and the case ending. Between the «-m» form and a case suffix starting with a consonant cluster, or the genitive singular «-t», an extra epenthetic «-a» is added.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
guwanḿt samńḿ
|
||||
guwan-ḿ-t samń-ḿ
|
||||
sun-DEF-GEN colour-DEF
|
||||
the colour of the sun
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Sámimat þasi
|
||||
Sami-ma-t þasi
|
||||
Sam-DEF-GEN dog
|
||||
one of Sam's dogs
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Sámimat þasim
|
||||
Sami-ma-t þasim
|
||||
Sam-DEF-GEN dog-DEF
|
||||
Sam's dog
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
The definite suffix is used:
|
||||
|
||||
* When the referent is old information already mentioned.
|
||||
«Pas nú bairusina. Nai rala núm manifnut gašnat ippausi.» I saw two people. One of them was wearing a nice shirt.
|
||||
|
||||
* For people, places, countries, and other proper names.
|
||||
«Danielḿ Włjáhámamli nuabia.» Daniel lives in Austria.
|
||||
|
||||
* In time phrases with «gimi».
|
||||
«Gimimli lána.» I'm doing it now.
|
||||
However, «naigimi» 'sometime' is indefinite.
|
||||
«Naigimili lámána.» I'll do it at some point.
|
||||
|
||||
* In statements of general fact.
|
||||
«Númsal pasla aðal ai.» Humans have two eyes.
|
||||
|
||||
* __TODO: ?__
|
||||
|
||||
The definite suffix is _not_ used (in contrast to English):
|
||||
|
||||
* In superlatives.
|
||||
«Milnutlit aifa.» It's the smallest.
|
||||
|
||||
* __TODO: ?__
|
||||
|
||||
# Adjectivals
|
||||
|
||||
Most words considered as adjectives in other languages are in fact grammatically nouns in Lántas; words such as «sabu» can be translated as 'the colour black'. When one noun modifies another attributively, the [genitive case](#corecases) suffix «-(a)t» is used. Additional adjectives after the first additionally take a special conjunctive suffix «-as», similar to the comitative case. Adjectives, like other noun modifiers, precede the head noun in most cases. However, they can follow it if they indicate a property considered inherent to the objects in question.
|
||||
|
||||
Genitive forms can be used as adverbs with the suffix «-tta»; the conjunctive variant is «-ttás».
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
sabut þasi
|
||||
sabu-t þasi
|
||||
black-GEN dog
|
||||
a black dog
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
líbisat þasi
|
||||
líbis-at þasi
|
||||
happy-GEN dog
|
||||
a happy dog
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
sabut líbistas þasi
|
||||
sabu-t líbis-t-as þasi
|
||||
black-GEN happy-GEN-CONJ dog
|
||||
a happy black dog
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Línaim sihatta irhi.
|
||||
línai-m siha-tta irhi
|
||||
mouse-GEN small-ADV squeak
|
||||
The mouse is squeaking quietly.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
From adjectivals, several further derivations can be made: the _equative_, which expresses that two objects have an equal measure of some property; the _comparative_, which says that one object has more of a property than another object; and the _superlative_, which claims that an object has the most of a property. Derivation from «gaisi» 'white':
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
------------------- --------------
|
||||
Equative (EQU) «gaisi·t·sat»
|
||||
Comparative (CMP) «gaisi·t·pat»
|
||||
Superlative (SUPL) «gaisi·t·lit»
|
||||
------------------- --------------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
The noun being compared with is in the [essive case](#corecases) for the equative, and the exessive for the comparative.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
ǧimagu ausutsat
|
||||
ǧima-gu ausu-t-sat
|
||||
house-ESS big-GEN-EQU
|
||||
as big as a house
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
fíraču panísatpat
|
||||
fíra-ču panísa-t-pat
|
||||
sky-EXE blue-GEN-CMP
|
||||
bluer than the sky
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Numbers
|
||||
hidetoc: true
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
| | | | | | | | |
|
||||
|---|----------|----|---------------|----|-------------|------|---------------|
|
||||
| 1 | «nai» | 10 | «taksa» | 19 | «taksístu» | 100 | «bušŕ» |
|
||||
| 2 | «pas» | 11 | «tahnai» | 20 | «pastaksa» | 1000 | «nifma» |
|
||||
| 3 | «kalli» | 12 | «tappas» | 30 | «kaldaksa» | 10⁴ | «hárual» |
|
||||
| 4 | «šasḿ» | 13 | «takkalli» | 40 | «šastaksa» | 10⁵ | «taksahárual» |
|
||||
| 5 | «kaisi» | 14 | «taksasḿ» | 50 | «kaistaksa» | 10⁶ | «bušŕhárual» |
|
||||
| 6 | «ǧutta» | 15 | «takkaisi» | 60 | «ǧuttaksa» | 10⁷ | «nifmahárual» |
|
||||
| 7 | «libina» | 16 | «taččutta» | 70 | «libidaksa» | 10⁸ | «kḿpsi» |
|
||||
| 8 | «ńdá» | 17 | «taksalibina» | 80 | «ńtaksa» | 10¹² | «kahmil» |
|
||||
| 9 | «ístu» | 18 | «taksandá» | 90 | «ístaksa» | 10¹⁶ | «uhnat» |
|
||||
|
||||
Numbers between 20--99 are formed by analogy with those from 11--19, for example «kaldappas» for 32.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="450" height="200" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"
|
||||
xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" version="1.1">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5, 25) scale(5)" class="script">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#1" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#2" x="8" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#3" x="16" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#4" x="23" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#5" x="31" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#6" x="38" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#7" x="45" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#8" x="54" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#9" x="61" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#0" x="70" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5, 70)" class="word">
|
||||
<text x="15">1</text>
|
||||
<text x="55">2</text>
|
||||
<text x="90">3</text>
|
||||
<text x="130">4</text>
|
||||
<text x="165">5</text>
|
||||
<text x="200">6</text>
|
||||
<text x="240">7</text>
|
||||
<text x="279">8</text>
|
||||
<text x="319">9</text>
|
||||
<text x="363">0</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(105, 135) scale(5)" class="script">
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#num" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#4" x="3" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#8" x="12" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#7" x="18" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#3" x="26" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#5" x="32" />
|
||||
<use xlink:href="defs.svg#num" x="38" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<g transform="translate(105, 180)" class="word">
|
||||
<text x="100">48,735</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.5 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—phonology
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
# Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object data=pure-vowels.svg></object>
|
||||
<object data=diphthongs1.svg></object>
|
||||
<object data=diphthongs2.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
There are three basic vowels #/i a u/, diphthongs #/ai au iə uə/, and syllabic consonants #/m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩/. Neither of these last two sets have a length distinction, and have the same duration as a long vowel. Note that #/u uː/ are substantially more central than #/i iː/, and the initial place of #/uə/ is further back than pure #/uː/.
|
||||
|
||||
Long vowels, and syllabic consonants other than «l», are spelt with a acute accent: «í á ú ḿ ń ŕ». A syllabic «l», because of its height, replaces the acute with a stroke: «ł». The diphthongs are spelt «ai au ia ua».
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object data=vowel-allophones1.svg></object>
|
||||
<object data=vowel-allophones2.svg></object>
|
||||
<object data=vowel-allophones-diph.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
* After a velar consonant, including #/ɫ w/, the vowels #/a aː ai i iː iə u uː uə/ are backed and lowered to the forms labelled #[ɑ ɑː ɑe ɛ eː eə ɔ oː ɔə], respectively, in the figures above.
|
||||
* After #/j/, #/i iː iə/ become #[e eː eə].
|
||||
* After #/ʧ ʤ ʃ j/, #/u uː/ is fronted to #[y ʉː].
|
||||
* Before a syllabic consonant, a small schwa may be inserted if necessary to make pronunciation easier. This is most common between #/ln̩ nl̩/ and two copies of a single sound. For example, «kalń» #/kaln̩/ #[kɐlᵊn] 'cat'.
|
||||
* \#/r̩ l̩/ are pronounced as #[ɻː ɫ̩ː].
|
||||
* Syllabic #/n̩/ assimilates to #[ŋ̍] before a velar consonant; no other assimilation for syllabic nasals occurs, though.
|
||||
* Unstressed short vowels are somewhat reduced, #/a/ more than the others.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Consonants
|
||||
|
||||
Where unspecified, consonants are spelt the same way as in IPA.
|
||||
|
||||
| | Labial | Dental | Postalveolar | Velar |
|
||||
|-------------|----------|-----------------|--------------|----------|
|
||||
| Plosive | #/p b/ | #/t d/ | #/ʧ ʤ/ «č ǧ» | #/k g/ |
|
||||
| Fricative | #/f/ | #/θ s/ «þ/ð, s» | #/ʃ/ «š» | #/x/ «h» |
|
||||
| Nasal | #/m/ | #/n/ | | |
|
||||
| Flap | #/ɾ/ «r» | | | |
|
||||
| Approximant | #/w/ | #/l/ | #/j/ | |
|
||||
|
||||
The phonemes #/p t ʧ k s ʃ m n ɾ l x/ can be geminated. For the purposes of syllable structure, geminated consonants are counted the same as two separate ones. Geminate versions of most consonants are spelt by doubling the letter: «pp», «tt», «kk», etc. The phoneme #/θ/ is spelt «þ» word-initially (and at the beginning of components of compound words), and «ð» elsewhere.[^ð]
|
||||
|
||||
[^ð]: An Icelandic person on the Internet once told me off for having intramorphemic 'þ's in a language and it has stuck with me since.
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
* Before #/i iː iə/, #/ɾ/ becomes #[ʑ̞], a laminal fricative with only a small amount of actual friction, almost #[ɹ̻].
|
||||
* A nasal followed by a plosive assimilates to the same place of articulation (but for compound words this is not reflected in the spelling), for example «rabanpa» #[ravampa] 'what book?'.
|
||||
* The sequences #/ʧs ʃs sʃ/ are pronounced as #[tʃː ʃː ʃː].
|
||||
* Nasals before #/s x/ decay to a nasalisation of the previous vowel, or are dropped entirely if that vowel is a syllabic consonant.
|
||||
* Voiced plosives #/b d ʤ ɡ/ become fricatives #[v ð ʒ ɣ] between proper vowels. The allophone #[v] is pronounced #[β] by some speakers.
|
||||
* The velar fricative #/x/ becomes #[h] before #/r̩/, and is palatalised to #[ç] before #/i iː iə/.
|
||||
* Long #/ʧː/ is pronounced as #[ṯːʃ]. Long #/ɾ l/ become #[ʐː ɫː].
|
||||
* Non-final #/l/ is velarized #[ɫ] after a back vowel (including the allophones #[ɑ ɑː]). After other vowels, it is palatalised.
|
||||
* Non-syllabic #/l/ is pronounced as #[ɬʲ] at the end of words, even after a back vowel. After #/t/ it is #[ɬ]. The phoneme #/ɾ/ is also devoiced #[ɾ̥] word-finally. The sequence #/lθ/ is realised as #[ɬʲː].
|
||||
* In many dialects, the long obstruents #/pː tː ʧː kː sː ʃː/ are pronounced as ejectives #[pʼ tʼ ʧ ʼ kʼ sʼ ʃʼ], and the long sonorants #/mː nː lː/ as #[bᵐ dⁿ ɮː].
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
<div>
|
||||
The allowed shape of a syllable is <var>CV</var>(<var>C</var>) where <var>V</var> is any vowel and <var>C</var> a consonant, such that all clusters take one of the following forms:
|
||||
|
||||
* <var>KC</var>, where
|
||||
<var>K</var> can be any of
|
||||
#/m n l r θ s ʃ t/ _(coda consonants)_;
|
||||
* <var>FN</var>,
|
||||
where <var>F</var> can be
|
||||
#/f θ s ʃ x/ _(fricatives)_ and
|
||||
<var>N</var> can be
|
||||
#/m n/ _(nasals)_;
|
||||
* <var>P</var>#/s/, where
|
||||
<var>P</var> can be #/p t ʧ k/ _(voiceless plosives)_;
|
||||
* \#/pj bj lj rj/; and
|
||||
* geminate consonants.
|
||||
|
||||
Aside from these, a word can also start with a vowel. At the end of a word, the consonants from <var>K</var> are allowed. A syllabic consonant cannot be next to the non-syllabic form of the same consonant---for example, the sequences #/ll̩/ and #/l̩l/ are not possible. Two distinct syllabic consonants can be next to each other, however---even without a non-syllabic consonant in between---and are pronounced as two separate syllables as normal.
|
||||
|
||||
Sometimes an inflectional ending can cause an invalid sequence of syllabic and non-syllabic consonant. In this case, the sequence is replaced with «a» plus a long form of the consonant: «suaþł» 'speaker'---«suaþalla» 'from a speaker'.
|
||||
|
||||
Occasionally, loanwords break the consonant clustering rules, such as «mikrugram».
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Stress
|
||||
|
||||
Words are stressed on the first long vowel; if there are no long vowels, _or_ the only one is in the final syllable of multiple, then the stress is on the first syllable. For the purposes of deciding stress placement, neither diphthongs nor syllabic consonants are counted as long.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Epenthesis
|
||||
|
||||
Many inflectional endings begin with a consonant. In some cases, this will cause an illegal consonant cluster according to the above rules. Therefore, an epenthetic vowel will sometimes need to be inserted. This vowel depends on the affix being added, and so is given at the same time as the inflections themselves. Note that if multiple inflections are added, only the extra vowels necessary to make the word legal (going left to right) are inserted: as further affixes are stacked, these will appear to surface and vanish again. See, for instance, the examples given for [adjectival genitives](nouns.html#adjectivals).
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Pronouns & demonstratives
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
Pronouns are inflected for the same cases as other nouns, though their forms are somewhat irregular.
|
||||
|
||||
# Personal pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
The first person plural «til» is only used inclusively of the listener. For an exclusive meaning, one must say «rukas ká» ('they and I') or similar. (The name «tiallántas» is fossilised, however, and does not change to «rukaskatlántas» when talking to a non-speaker.)
|
||||
|
||||
The LOC column is the word stems which the [locational cases](#locational_cases) are attached to. Their suffixes are regular.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
| | 1SG | 1PL | 2SG | 2PL | 3SG | 3PL |
|
||||
|----:|---------|----------|---------|----------|---------|----------|
|
||||
| NOM | «ká» | «til» | «sur» | «sual» | «rú» | «rúl» |
|
||||
| GEN | «kat» | «tial» | «sut» | «suatł» | «rut» | «rutł» |
|
||||
| COM | «kakas» | «tiksł» | «sukas» | «suksł» | «rukas» | «ruksł» |
|
||||
| CAR | «kassa» | «tissal» | «sussa» | «sussal» | «russa» | «russal» |
|
||||
| INS | «kala» | «tilla» | «sulla» | «sualla» | «rulla» | «rualla» |
|
||||
| ESS | «kagu» | «tigul» | «sugu» | «sugul» | «rugu» | «rugul» |
|
||||
| TRA | «kasti» | «tistil» | «susti» | «sustul» | «rusti» | «rustil» |
|
||||
| EXE | «kaču» | «tičul» | «sučču» | «suččul» | «ruču» | «ručul» |
|
||||
| LOC | «ka–» | «ti–l» | «su–» | «sua–l» | «ru–» | «rua–l» |
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Demonstratives
|
||||
|
||||
There is a three way distance distinction for demonstratives: a new referent near the speaker/listener, a new referent distant from both, and old information. These will be glossed as 'this', 'yon', and 'that', respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
The near demonstrative is «lua», whose declension is given below. For distant referents it is «þua» and for old information «mua»; they decline in the same way as «lua».
|
||||
|
||||
The adjectival (ADJ) forms of these words are used as determiners before other nouns. Note that unlike most nouns, it is distinct from the genitive: compare «muð kalńł» 'those cats' and «mut kalńł» 'that person's cats'. It also lacks stress, unlike the other forms.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
| | Singular | Plural |
|
||||
|----:|----------|-----------|
|
||||
| NOM | «lua» | «lul» |
|
||||
| GEN | «lut» | «lutł» |
|
||||
| COM | «lukas» | «luksł» |
|
||||
| CAR | «lussa» | «lussal» |
|
||||
| INS | «lulla» | «lulllal» |
|
||||
| ESS | «lugu» | «lugul» |
|
||||
| TRA | «lusti» | «lustil» |
|
||||
| EXE | «luču» | «lučul» |
|
||||
| LOC | «lu–» | «lu–l» |
|
||||
| ADJ | «luð» | «luð» |
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Indefinites
|
||||
|
||||
The words 'someone', 'something', 'anyone', 'anything' are served by (a stressed form of) the numeral «nai» 'one'. 'Everyone' or 'everything' is «nakasnai», and inflects the same way as «nai» itself. The words «nala» and «nakasnala» mean 'any' and 'every', respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Interrogatives
|
||||
|
||||
Interrogatives (question words) are formed with the enclitic «-pa», attached to any noun phrase. As well as «naipa» 'what?, who?', it can be added to any other word to mean 'which?'.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Naipa musat ai?
|
||||
Nai=pa mu-sa-t ai
|
||||
one=what that-AD-ESS be
|
||||
Who's there?
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Hámamlinaspa sidasiha?
|
||||
háma-m-li-nas=pa sida-si-ha
|
||||
country-DEF-IN-ABL=what come-RPST-2SG
|
||||
Which country do you come from?
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
Being a clitic, «-pa» is added to the end of the noun, after all other (non-clitic) endings such as case inflections, as shown in the above examples.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,39 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="210" height="160" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5,5)">
|
||||
<!-- help lines -->
|
||||
<g stroke="#999">
|
||||
<line x1="50" y1="75" x2="200" y2="75" />
|
||||
<line x1="100" y1="0" x2="150" y2="150" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- outer trapezoid -->
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 200 0 200 150 100 150"
|
||||
fill="transparent" stroke="black" />
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- í -->
|
||||
<circle cx="25" cy="15" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="37" y="15" class="ipa">iː</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- i -->
|
||||
<circle cx="50" cy="30" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="60" y="30" class="ipa">i</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- ú -->
|
||||
<circle cx="150" cy="15" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="163" y="15" class="ipa">uː</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- u -->
|
||||
<circle cx="125" cy="30" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="138" y="30" class="ipa">u</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- á -->
|
||||
<circle cx="110" cy="135" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="123" y="135" class="ipa">aː</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- a -->
|
||||
<circle cx="125" cy="115" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="115" y="115" class="ipa">a</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.2 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1 @@
|
|||
Líbis arkunlangaskun. Subaraditḿku fíja lántaslinł suanáš, lántatł fítḿ naikuja lálkas dawinlinł suanáš. Núkaubat fírat fínáš, mulin lántatł fínášlam tikul líbis fínáš.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,216 @@
|
|||
import std.features
|
||||
import std.symbols.ipa
|
||||
import std.symbols.ipa.diacritics
|
||||
|
||||
#########
|
||||
# SETUP #
|
||||
#########
|
||||
|
||||
feature stress
|
||||
# needs to go directly after vowel instead of the normal place
|
||||
symbol ˈ (diacritic) [+stress]
|
||||
|
||||
symbol ɡ [(g)]
|
||||
symbol ɫ [(l) +bk +hi]
|
||||
symbol ɬ [(l) -son -vc]
|
||||
|
||||
symbol dʒ [(ʒ) -cont]
|
||||
symbol tʃ [(ʃ) -cont]
|
||||
|
||||
feature [V] [-cons +syll]
|
||||
feature [I] [[V] +fr +hi]
|
||||
feature [U] [[V] -bk +hi]
|
||||
feature [A] [[V] +lo]
|
||||
feature [N] [+nas +cons *syll]
|
||||
feature [ALV] [+ant -dist *syll +cons]
|
||||
feature [PST] [+str -ant +dist *syll +cons]
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonix hangs if it's unable to display a sound. And fricatives aren't just
|
||||
# plosive +cont, because of course they aren't.
|
||||
symbol ?v [(b) +cont] rule ?v-v (persist) ?v => v
|
||||
symbol ?f [(p) +cont] rule ?f-f (persist) ?f => f
|
||||
symbol ?θ [(t) +cont] rule ?θ-θ (persist) ?θ => θ
|
||||
symbol ?ð [(d) +cont] rule ?ð-ð (persist) ?ð => ð
|
||||
symbol ?x [(k) +cont] rule ?x-x (persist) ?x => x
|
||||
symbol ?ɣ [(g) +cont] rule ?ɣ-ɣ (persist) ?ɣ => ɣ
|
||||
|
||||
feature long
|
||||
symbol ː (diacritic) [+long]
|
||||
|
||||
rule schwa-glide ə => [-syll]
|
||||
|
||||
syllable
|
||||
onset [-syll]
|
||||
onset [*syll]
|
||||
nucleus [+syll]
|
||||
coda [-syll]
|
||||
coda ([-syll])[*syll]
|
||||
|
||||
#####################
|
||||
# INITIAL ALLOPHONY #
|
||||
#####################
|
||||
|
||||
rule nasal-assim [+nas] => [$Place] / _ [$Place +cons]
|
||||
rule r-before-i ɾ => zʲ / _ i
|
||||
rule s-after-postalv s => ʃ / _ [+str +dist]
|
||||
|
||||
rule nas-cont1 [-cons] => [+nas] / _ [[N]][+cons +cont]
|
||||
rule nas-cont2 [[N]] => * / [+nas -cons] _ [+cons +cont]
|
||||
rule nas-cont3 [[N]] => * / [+syll +cons] _ [+cons +cont]
|
||||
rule nas-vowel-spread [-cons] => [+nas] / _ [+nas -cons]
|
||||
|
||||
rule nas-glide-fix
|
||||
[+syll -cons][-cons -syll +nas] => [+nas][-nas]
|
||||
|
||||
rule iv-voiced [+vc -cont] => [+cont] / [-cons] _ [-cons]
|
||||
|
||||
rule x-before-sr x => h / r̩ _
|
||||
rule x-after-sr x => h / _ r̩
|
||||
rule x-before-i x => ç / _ i
|
||||
|
||||
rule double-r ɾɾ => ʐʐ
|
||||
rule final-r ɾ => ɾ̥ / _ $
|
||||
|
||||
rule double-l ll => ɫɫ
|
||||
rule postv-l l => lʲ / _ [+cons] // _ l
|
||||
rule tl l => ɬ / t _
|
||||
rule final-l l => ɬʲ / _ $
|
||||
rule lθ lθ => ɬʲɬʲ
|
||||
rule l-back l => ɫ / _ [+bk]
|
||||
|
||||
rule back-a [[A]] => [-fr +bk] / [+bk] _
|
||||
rule lower-hi1 [[V] +hi] => [-hi +str] / [+bk] _ // [+lat] _
|
||||
rule lower-hi2 [-hi -lo *long] => [-str] // _ [-cons]
|
||||
rule ji [[V] +fr +hi] => [-hi +str] / j _
|
||||
rule ju [[V] +bk +hi] => [-bk +fr] / j _
|
||||
rule pst-u [[V] +bk +hi] => [-bk +fr] / [[PST]] _
|
||||
rule wu [[V] +bk +hi] => [-hi +str] / w _
|
||||
rule alv-i [[V] +fr +hi] => [-str] / [[ALV]] _
|
||||
rule syll-l l̩ => ɫ̩
|
||||
rule syll-n-v n̩ => ŋ̩ / _ [+bk +cons]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
#################
|
||||
# SOUND CHANGES #
|
||||
#################
|
||||
|
||||
rule init-j-nasal j => ɲ / $ _
|
||||
rule iv-j-fort j => ʒ / [[V]] _ [[V]]
|
||||
|
||||
rule au-mono [[A] *stress] => ɔː / _ w
|
||||
rule au-mono2 w => * / [(ɔː)] _
|
||||
rule ai-mono-f [[A] *stress] => æː / _ j
|
||||
rule ai-mono-f2 j => * / [(æː)] _
|
||||
rule uə-mono [[V] *stress +bk] => ɤː / _ ə̯
|
||||
rule uə-mono2 ə̯ => * / [(ɤː)] _
|
||||
rule iə-mono [[V] *stress +fr *ro] => ɨː / _ ə̯
|
||||
rule iə-mono2 ə̯ => * / [(ɨː)] _
|
||||
rule ye-mono [[V] *stress +fr +ro] => øː / _ ə̯
|
||||
rule yə-mono2 ə̯ => * / [(øː)] _
|
||||
|
||||
rule hiatus-merge1 [+long] => [*long] / _ [[V]]
|
||||
rule hiatus-merge2 [+long] => [*long] / [[V]] _
|
||||
rule hiatus-merge3 [[V]] => [-syll] / [[V]] _
|
||||
rule one-glide [-cons -syll] => * / _ [-cons -syll]
|
||||
rule ns-a-frontness [-cons -syll +lo] => [$fr $bk] / [-cons $fr $bk] _
|
||||
|
||||
rule eow-nasal1 [[V]] => [+nas] / _ [+nas *syll] $
|
||||
rule eow-nasal2 [+nas *syll] => * / [[V] +nas] _ $
|
||||
|
||||
syllable
|
||||
onset [-syll]
|
||||
onset [*syll]
|
||||
nucleus [+syll]
|
||||
coda [-syll]
|
||||
coda ([-syll])[*syll]
|
||||
|
||||
rule poststress-vowel1 [[V] *long] => * / [+stress] [*syll] _ [] // _ [<coda>]
|
||||
rule poststress-vowel2 [[V] *long] => * / [+stress] [-syll] _ [] // _ [<coda>]
|
||||
rule unstressed-short [[V] *stress] => [*long] // _ $
|
||||
|
||||
rule eow-u [[V] +ro -fr] => u / _ $
|
||||
rule eow-schwa1 [[V] *long *nas -hi] => ə / _ $
|
||||
|
||||
rule no-v-wj [-cons -syll] => * / [+cons] _ [+cons]
|
||||
|
||||
rule init-glide-cons [-cons -syll] => * / $ _ [+cons]
|
||||
rule syll-glide [+cons +syll *stress] => [*syll] / _ [-cons -syll]
|
||||
rule l-light ɫ => l / _ j
|
||||
rule l-pal l => ʎ / _ j
|
||||
rule l-pal2 j => * / ʎ _
|
||||
|
||||
rule syll-r-v1 * => ɑ / _ [(r̩)]
|
||||
rule syll-r-v2 [+syll] => [+stress] / _ [(r) +stress]
|
||||
rule syll-r-v3 [(r̩)] => ɾ
|
||||
|
||||
rule syll-n-v1 n̩ˈ => ɛ̃ˈ
|
||||
rule syll-n-v2 * => j / ɛ̃ˈ _
|
||||
rule syll-n-v3 n̩ => ɛ̃
|
||||
|
||||
rule syll-m-v1 m̩ˈ => ɔ̃ˈ
|
||||
rule syll-m-v2 * => w / ɔ̃ˈ _
|
||||
rule syll-m-v3 m̩ => ɔ̃
|
||||
|
||||
rule syll-l-v1 ɫ̩ˈ => uˈ
|
||||
rule syll-l-v2 ɫ̩ => u
|
||||
|
||||
syllable
|
||||
onset [-syll]
|
||||
onset [*syll]
|
||||
nucleus [+syll]
|
||||
coda [-syll]
|
||||
coda ([-syll])(ɾ)[*syll]
|
||||
|
||||
rule nonrhotic [(ɾ) <coda>] => ə̯
|
||||
rule a-r a => ɑ / _ ə̯
|
||||
|
||||
rule voice-l [(ɬ)] => l
|
||||
rule coda-l [+lat <coda>] => ɫ
|
||||
|
||||
rule debuc-fric-coda
|
||||
[+cont -vc <coda> $Place $Manner] => χ // _ [$Place $Manner]
|
||||
rule debuc-fric-coda2
|
||||
χ => ç / [+fr +syll] _
|
||||
|
||||
rule ts-pal1 t => tʃ / _ s
|
||||
rule ts-pal2 s => * / tʃ _
|
||||
rule ts-pal3 ɪ => i / [[PST]] _
|
||||
|
||||
rule nasal-a ã => ɑ̃
|
||||
rule nasal-y [+fr +hi +ro +nas +syll] => ø̃
|
||||
rule nasal-i [+fr +hi *ro +nas +syll] => ẽ
|
||||
rule nasal-u [+bk +hi +nas +syll] => õ
|
||||
|
||||
rule ps p => w / [-cons] _ s
|
||||
rule ww w => * / _ w
|
||||
rule ks k => j / [-cons] _ s
|
||||
rule jj j => * / _ j
|
||||
|
||||
rule iv-pls-v [-cont -vc] => [+vc] / [-cons] _ [-cons]
|
||||
rule iv-s-v s => z / [-cons] _ [-cons]
|
||||
rule iv-š-v ʃ => ʒ / [-cons] _ [-cons]
|
||||
rule iv-gem-s
|
||||
[-son $Place $Manner] => * / [-cons] _ [$Place $Manner] [-cons]
|
||||
rule iv-gem-s2 t => * / _ tʃ
|
||||
|
||||
rule final-i-pst [+hi +fr *ro] => * / [[PST]] _ $
|
||||
|
||||
rule ð-ɣ ð => ɣ / [-cons] _ [-cons]
|
||||
rule ð-ː ð => [$Place $Manner $vc] / [+cons $vc $Place $Manner] _
|
||||
rule ɣ-w wɣ => ɣw
|
||||
rule ɣ-j ɣ => * / j _
|
||||
|
||||
rule t-pls t => θ / _ [-cont] // _ t
|
||||
|
||||
rule ə̯-unstressed ə̯ => * / [*stress] _ // _ $
|
||||
|
||||
rule a-unstressed [+lo *stress] => ə // _ [-cons <coda>]
|
||||
|
||||
rule ɣ-ʁ ɣ => ʁ
|
||||
rule χɾ χ => ʃ / _ ɾ
|
||||
|
||||
###########
|
||||
# CLEANUP #
|
||||
###########
|
||||
|
||||
rule cleanup-syll [+cons -syll] => [*syll]
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,121 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Writing System
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
<style>
|
||||
object.script { vertical-align: middle; }
|
||||
</style>
|
||||
|
||||
Lántas is natively written with an [abugida], meaning that consonants are full letters, while vowels (including syllabic consonants) are written as modifiers to the previous consonant.
|
||||
|
||||
[abugida]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abugida
|
||||
|
||||
As an example of how it looks, here is the first sentence of [The North Wind and the Sun][nwas]:
|
||||
|
||||
[nwas]: examples.html#the-north-wind-and-the-sun
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=northwind2.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Independent vowels
|
||||
|
||||
These are used when a word begins with a vowel (or syllabic consonant).
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=ivowels.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Vowel diacritics
|
||||
|
||||
These are attached to a consonant symbol to indicate the following vowel.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=dvowels.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Base consonants
|
||||
|
||||
These letters are the base shapes for single consonants. The glyphs below do not actually mean anything (except the one for «j»); the final stem is given a descender for an #/a/, and an underline indicates no vowel. (See [above](#vowel-diacritics).)
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=consonants.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
Consonant clusters are written with a ligature called a _conjunct_ derived from the two base letters.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Conjunct consonants
|
||||
|
||||
While many conjuncts are not exactly the two consonants mashed together, the form is usually predictable.
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «t»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-t.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «ð»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-th.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «s»/«š»
|
||||
|
||||
The conjuncts starting with «š», other than «šp», are the same as with «s» except with the overline added. (In «šš» the overlines merge, as shown below.)
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-s.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «l»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-l.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «m»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-m.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «n»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-n.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjuncts with «r»
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-r.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
## Others
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object class=script data=conjuncts-o.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Punctuation
|
||||
|
||||
The end of phrase <object class=script data=eop.svg></object> and end of sentence <object class=script data=eos.svg></object> marks, transcribed as commas and full stops/question marks/exclamation marks[^fs], have the same amount space either side of them, more for the latter. When they are on a line break, they stay with the previous word, like in the example at the top of this page (and like in most scripts).
|
||||
|
||||
[^fs]: Even though there's no distinction in the native script, questions look weird in the transcription with no "?" after them.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Numbers
|
||||
|
||||
Numbers are written in base 10 using modified letters. Numbers in running text are surrounded by double vertical bars, and digits are grouped into fours.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object data=numbers.svg></object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
Binary file not shown.
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 2.9 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Syntax
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO__
|
||||
|
||||
- word order head-final
|
||||
- polite address avoids 2nd person pronouns/verb suffixes
|
||||
- ‘the more X, the more Y’: lusari X-CMP vb, musari Y-CMP [vb] NB no accent
|
||||
- place-manner-time by default
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,233 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas—Verbs
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO: intro__
|
||||
|
||||
The infinitive is unmarked (but always ends in a vowel), and is the citation form for verbs as well as being used in several constructions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Tense
|
||||
|
||||
There is a distinction between two different past tenses, _recent_ and _distant_ past. The recent past is most commonly used, while the distant past is used to denote an action happening further in the past than to another action already expressed using the recent.
|
||||
|
||||
Stories are narrated in the present tense.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
-------------------- --------
|
||||
Distant past (DPST) «--sai»
|
||||
Recent past (RPST) «--si»
|
||||
Present (PRS) «--»
|
||||
Future (FUT) «--má»
|
||||
-------------------- --------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim kalńḿt jaðí.
|
||||
þasi-m kalń-ḿ-t jaðí
|
||||
dog-DEF cat-DEF-GEN love;PRS
|
||||
The dog loves the cat.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim kalńḿt jaðísi.
|
||||
þasim kalńḿt jaðí-si
|
||||
the:dog the:cat love-RPST
|
||||
The dog loved the cat.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim kalńḿt jaðísai.
|
||||
þasim kalńḿt jaðí-sai
|
||||
the:dog the:cat love-DPST
|
||||
The dog had loved the cat (until …).
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim kalńḿt jaðímá.
|
||||
þasim kalńḿt jaðí-má
|
||||
the:dog the:cat love-FUT
|
||||
The dog will love the cat.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Person
|
||||
|
||||
These suffixes are used instead of pronouns, but not used with nouns, in the subject and object positions. The subject suffix comes before the object. For the plural, the vowel is lengthened and an «--š» is added (e.g. «na» → «náš»).
|
||||
|
||||
Just like with the [pronouns](#pronouns), the first person plurals «--náš» and «--dúš» can only be used with an inclusive meaning. The exclusive sense is expressed by using conjunctions of pronouns instead of suffixes.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
|
||||
-------------- ------------ ------------ -----------
|
||||
Subject (SBJ) «--na» «--ha» «--fa»
|
||||
Object (OBJ) «--du» «--gu» «--bu»
|
||||
-------------- ------------ ------------ -----------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Bairunagu.
|
||||
bairu-na-gu
|
||||
see-1SG;SBJ-2SG;OBJ
|
||||
I see you.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim bairunáš.
|
||||
þasi-m bairu-náš
|
||||
dog-DEF see-1PL;SBJ
|
||||
We see the dog.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim bairudúš.
|
||||
þasi-m bairu-dúš
|
||||
dog-DEF see-1PL;OBJ
|
||||
The dog sees us.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Voice
|
||||
|
||||
There is a four way voice distinction. The voice markers are placed between the tense and person markers.
|
||||
|
||||
- The _active_ voice is the default form of the verb and does not modify the roles of the arguments.
|
||||
- The _passive_ voice promotes the direct object of the verb to subject position, leaving the former subject role unspecified. There is no way to specify the agent (i.e., no equivalent to _by_); to merely emphasise the object but keep the subject specified, the object can be moved to the beginning of the clause.
|
||||
- The _reflexive_ voice indicates that the subject(s) act on themselves.
|
||||
- The _reciprocal_ voice indicates that the subjects act on each other.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
----------------- ----------
|
||||
Active (ACT) «--»
|
||||
Passive (PSV) «--lú»
|
||||
Reflexive (RFL) «--sidu»
|
||||
Reciprocal (RCP) «--lði»
|
||||
----------------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasimat tassána.
|
||||
þasimat tassá-na
|
||||
the:dog wash-1SG
|
||||
I wash the dog.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Þasim tassálú.
|
||||
þasim tassá-lú
|
||||
the:dog wash-PSV
|
||||
The dog is washed.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Tassásiduna.
|
||||
tassá-sidu-na
|
||||
wash-RFL-1SG
|
||||
I wash myself.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Tassálðináš.
|
||||
tassá-lði-náš
|
||||
wash-RCP-1PL
|
||||
We wash each other.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Negative
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO__
|
||||
|
||||
«--tul»
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Nominal forms
|
||||
|
||||
A verb stem can also be used as a noun: for example, «šikkú» both means 'to go' and 'an act of going'. The definite plural is also used to mean the act in a general sense. The definite form is also used for the verb of content clauses, for example indirect quotations.
|
||||
|
||||
Auxiliary verbs such as modals use this construction as well.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
hipsamł
|
||||
hipsa-m-ł
|
||||
solve_problem-DEF-PL
|
||||
logic (the general act of problem solving)
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Fíra fuham suasifa.
|
||||
fíra fuha-m sua-si-fa
|
||||
air blow-DEF say-RPST-3SG
|
||||
He said it was windy.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Šikkúnamat ušminatul.
|
||||
šikkú-na-m-at ušmi-na-tul
|
||||
go-1SG-DEF-GEN want-1SG-NEG
|
||||
I don't want to go.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Modifier forms
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO__ used to form relative clauses, come before noun & other modifiers
|
||||
|
||||
- «--ja»: other
|
||||
- «núm bairuja þasim»: the dog the man sees
|
||||
- «núm bairusija þasim»: the dog the man saw
|
||||
|
||||
- nominalised with extra «-ð» at the end
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Pro-verbs
|
||||
|
||||
Pro-verbs are placeholders standing in for verb phrases; they are the verb equivalent of pronouns.
|
||||
|
||||
The word for 'to do this' is «mai». It bears an obvious resemblance to the [pronoun] «mua». There are also the rarer «lai» and «þai», only used when contrasting between two options.
|
||||
|
||||
- «Naranášḿ iš lut saunusam gibanášḿ fulla. _Laim iš þaim_ ušmiha?»
|
||||
We can walk or take the bus. _Which_ do you want to do?
|
||||
- «_Þaim_ ušmina.»
|
||||
I want to do _that_ (i.e., take the bus).
|
||||
|
||||
There is also a negative pro-verb «tulla», 'to not do this/that'.
|
||||
|
||||
[pronoun]: pronouns.html
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Polar questions
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO__
|
||||
|
||||
Polar (yes/no) questions add a «--ǧi» clitic on the word or phrase being questioned. The word being questioned receives the primary stress. If there is no particular focus for the question, it is attached to the final word of the sentence.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Inlantimsasǧi šikkúmáha?
|
||||
Inlanti-m-sa-s-ǧi šikkú-má-ha
|
||||
England-DEF-AD-LAT-QU go-FUT-2SG
|
||||
Are you going to England (vs going somewhere else)?
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Surǧi Inlantimsas šikkúmá?
|
||||
sur-ǧi Inlantimsas šikkúmá
|
||||
2SG-QU to:England will:go
|
||||
Is it you (vs someone else) who is going to England?
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Inlantimsas šikkúmáhaǧi?
|
||||
Inlantimsas šikkúmáha-ǧi
|
||||
to:England you:will:go-QU
|
||||
Are you going to England (vs coming from it)?
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
To answer a yes/no question, the verbs «mai» or «tulla», respectively, are conjugated for person (but not tense, etc). Their literal meaning are as pro-verbs, 'to (not) do this'.
|
||||
|
||||
- «Inlantimsasǧi šikkúmáha?---Maina/Tullana.»
|
||||
Are you going to England?---Yes, I am/No, I'm not.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="210" height="160" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1">
|
||||
<defs>
|
||||
<marker id="arrowhead"
|
||||
markerWidth="10" markerHeight="12"
|
||||
orient="auto" refX="11" refY="5"
|
||||
viewBox="0 0 12 10">
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 12 5 0 10" fill="black" />
|
||||
</marker>
|
||||
<marker id="circle"
|
||||
markerWidth="6" markerHeight="6"
|
||||
orient="auto" refX="3" refY="3"
|
||||
viewBox="0 0 6 6">
|
||||
<circle cx="3" cy="3" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
</marker>
|
||||
</defs>
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5,5)">
|
||||
<!-- help lines -->
|
||||
<g stroke="#999">
|
||||
<line x1="50" y1="75" x2="200" y2="75" />
|
||||
<line x1="100" y1="0" x2="150" y2="150" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- outer trapezoid -->
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 200 0 200 150 100 150"
|
||||
fill="transparent" stroke="black" />
|
||||
|
||||
<line x1="55" y1="55" x2="115" y2="70"
|
||||
stroke="black"
|
||||
marker-start="url(#circle)"
|
||||
marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" />
|
||||
<text x="80" y="50" class="ipa">eə</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<line x1="190" y1="105" x2="130" y2="70"
|
||||
stroke="black"
|
||||
marker-start="url(#circle)"
|
||||
marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" />
|
||||
<text x="175" y="83" class="ipa">ɔə</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<line x1="175" y1="120" x2="90" y2="80"
|
||||
stroke="black"
|
||||
marker-start="url(#circle)"
|
||||
marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" />
|
||||
<text x="120" y="105" class="ipa">ɑe</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.5 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="210" height="160" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5,5)">
|
||||
<!-- help lines -->
|
||||
<g stroke="#999">
|
||||
<line x1="50" y1="75" x2="200" y2="75" />
|
||||
<line x1="100" y1="0" x2="150" y2="150" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- outer trapezoid -->
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 200 0 200 150 100 150"
|
||||
fill="transparent" stroke="black" />
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="55" cy="65" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="65" y="65" class="ipa">e</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="50" cy="40" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="63" y="40" class="ipa">eː</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="160" cy="55" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="170" y="57" class="ipa">o</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="160" cy="40" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="173" y="38" class="ipa">oː</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="185" cy="135" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="172" y="135" class="ipa">ɑː</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="175" cy="115" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="185" y="115" class="ipa">ɑ</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.1 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
<svg width="210" height="160" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" version="1.1">
|
||||
<g transform="translate(5,5)">
|
||||
<!-- help lines -->
|
||||
<g stroke="#999">
|
||||
<line x1="50" y1="75" x2="200" y2="75" />
|
||||
<line x1="100" y1="0" x2="150" y2="150" />
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- outer trapezoid -->
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 200 0 200 150 100 150"
|
||||
fill="transparent" stroke="black" />
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="75" cy="95" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="85" y="95" class="ipa">ɛ</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="160" cy="80" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="170" y="83" class="ipa">ɔ</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="65" cy="30" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="55" y="30" class="ipa">y</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<circle cx="90" cy="25" r="3" fill="black" />
|
||||
<text x="104" y="23" class="ipa">ʉː</text>
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 940 B |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,265 @@
|
|||
Atlantim
|
||||
Włjáhámam
|
||||
abjas
|
||||
abuda
|
||||
ai
|
||||
amar
|
||||
asum
|
||||
asura
|
||||
asurai
|
||||
atkir
|
||||
ausu
|
||||
aða
|
||||
ba
|
||||
bahú
|
||||
bairu
|
||||
bais
|
||||
bassa
|
||||
baudan
|
||||
bauðu
|
||||
bisi
|
||||
bulla
|
||||
bušŕ
|
||||
bušŕhárual
|
||||
bássa
|
||||
dagu
|
||||
daičči
|
||||
dalu
|
||||
dansu
|
||||
dawa
|
||||
dawajua
|
||||
dawin
|
||||
daš
|
||||
dufna
|
||||
dus
|
||||
fadau
|
||||
fasil
|
||||
fuha
|
||||
fullu
|
||||
fí
|
||||
fíra
|
||||
fńt
|
||||
fńtjat
|
||||
fńtraban
|
||||
fḿka
|
||||
gaisi
|
||||
gappa
|
||||
gari
|
||||
gašna
|
||||
giba
|
||||
gifu
|
||||
gimi
|
||||
gimimgi
|
||||
gimimli
|
||||
gimimðu
|
||||
gram
|
||||
gulmi
|
||||
guruba
|
||||
guwan
|
||||
guwin
|
||||
gḿba
|
||||
haidai
|
||||
haidaitŕ
|
||||
hakka
|
||||
hatas
|
||||
hipsa
|
||||
háma
|
||||
hárual
|
||||
ibja
|
||||
iksa
|
||||
inlandi
|
||||
ippau
|
||||
irhi
|
||||
iš
|
||||
išŕ
|
||||
iššas
|
||||
jat
|
||||
jaðí
|
||||
jašai
|
||||
jua
|
||||
juš
|
||||
já
|
||||
júli
|
||||
kahmil
|
||||
kai
|
||||
kaisi
|
||||
kaistaksa
|
||||
kaldaksa
|
||||
kalli
|
||||
kalsu
|
||||
kalń
|
||||
kassa
|
||||
kauba
|
||||
kautu
|
||||
ki
|
||||
kihnu
|
||||
kilu
|
||||
kiši
|
||||
kuafú
|
||||
kuafúsas
|
||||
kubu
|
||||
kudas
|
||||
kufnu
|
||||
kukki
|
||||
ká
|
||||
kášń
|
||||
kí
|
||||
kútsi
|
||||
kḿpsi
|
||||
lahmis
|
||||
laimi
|
||||
laksir
|
||||
laksŕ
|
||||
lau
|
||||
libidaksa
|
||||
libina
|
||||
lippu
|
||||
lippupanísa
|
||||
lira
|
||||
lis
|
||||
lisma
|
||||
litra
|
||||
ličča
|
||||
lua
|
||||
lun
|
||||
lá
|
||||
lántas
|
||||
líbis
|
||||
línai
|
||||
magń
|
||||
manifnu
|
||||
mapa
|
||||
mapsu
|
||||
matham
|
||||
mašku
|
||||
maškutraban
|
||||
miašša
|
||||
miga
|
||||
mikru
|
||||
milli
|
||||
milnu
|
||||
minu
|
||||
mitra
|
||||
mua
|
||||
mulin
|
||||
mílla
|
||||
nai
|
||||
naigimi
|
||||
naipa
|
||||
nakasnai
|
||||
nakku
|
||||
nala
|
||||
nalapa
|
||||
namaksu
|
||||
nara
|
||||
nassú
|
||||
nattu
|
||||
niasga
|
||||
niba
|
||||
nibaran
|
||||
nifma
|
||||
nifmahárual
|
||||
nis
|
||||
nuabia
|
||||
nú
|
||||
pa
|
||||
panísa
|
||||
panísalippu
|
||||
parai
|
||||
pas
|
||||
pastaksa
|
||||
pašu
|
||||
raban
|
||||
ran
|
||||
rusmá
|
||||
rú
|
||||
rúl
|
||||
sabu
|
||||
sairia
|
||||
samń
|
||||
santi
|
||||
santu
|
||||
saunu
|
||||
sawai
|
||||
sida
|
||||
sira
|
||||
siraikášń
|
||||
sua
|
||||
sual
|
||||
suapa
|
||||
sufa
|
||||
sumu
|
||||
sur
|
||||
sural
|
||||
sá
|
||||
słka
|
||||
tahnai
|
||||
takkaisi
|
||||
takkalli
|
||||
taksa
|
||||
taksahárual
|
||||
taksalibina
|
||||
taksandá
|
||||
taksasḿ
|
||||
taksístu
|
||||
tamnis
|
||||
tappas
|
||||
tassá
|
||||
taččutta
|
||||
tiallántas
|
||||
til
|
||||
tippi
|
||||
tippilun
|
||||
tiwa
|
||||
tuka
|
||||
tutim
|
||||
tušura
|
||||
tušurajað
|
||||
tílju
|
||||
tíru
|
||||
túsal
|
||||
tŕ
|
||||
ufan
|
||||
uhnat
|
||||
učča
|
||||
ušmi
|
||||
waibi
|
||||
waračča
|
||||
wassuna
|
||||
waugar
|
||||
wá
|
||||
włjá
|
||||
ákkí
|
||||
ístaksa
|
||||
ístu
|
||||
ðiš
|
||||
þalussu
|
||||
þasi
|
||||
þua
|
||||
þuna
|
||||
þł
|
||||
časmá
|
||||
čauba
|
||||
čá
|
||||
čámus
|
||||
ńdá
|
||||
ńgua
|
||||
ńtaksa
|
||||
ŕ
|
||||
ŕminu
|
||||
šakka
|
||||
šaksḿ
|
||||
šastaksa
|
||||
šasḿ
|
||||
ši
|
||||
šikkú
|
||||
šun
|
||||
šúsł
|
||||
ǧasku
|
||||
ǧima
|
||||
ǧimadalu
|
||||
ǧisa
|
||||
ǧunai
|
||||
ǧutta
|
||||
ǧuttaksa
|
||||
ǧáhnu
|
||||
File diff suppressed because it is too large
Load Diff
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lizard languages
|
||||
hidetoc: true
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
A family of languages spoken by lizard people.
|
||||
|
||||
- [Palaeo-lizard](palaeo/) (2000ya?)
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Palæo-lizard
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
"Palæo-lizard" is a placeholder name, obviously.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonology
|
||||
|
||||
## Inventory
|
||||
|
||||
| | Dental | Postalv. | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
|
||||
|----------:|:-------------:|:-------------:|:----------:|:----------:|:-----------:|:-------:|
|
||||
| Plosive | #(d tʰ tʼ) | | #(ɟ cʰ cʼ) | #(ɡ kʰ kʼ) | #(qʰ qʼ) | #(ʔ) |
|
||||
| Affricate | #(dz tsʰ tsʼ) | #(dʒ tʃʰ tʃʼ) | | | | |
|
||||
| Fricative | #(ð z θ s) | #(ʒ ʃ) | #(ʝ ç) | #(ɣ x) | #(χ) | #(h) |
|
||||
| Nasal | #(n) | | #(ɲ) | | #(ɴ) | |
|
||||
| Lateral | #(l) | | #(ʎ) | #(ʟ) | | |
|
||||
| Flap | #(ɾ) | | | | | |
|
||||
| Trill | #(r rː rːː) | | | | #(ʀ ʀː ʀːː) | |
|
||||
|
||||
| | Front | Back |
|
||||
|---------:|:-----:|:----:|
|
||||
| High | #(i) | #(ɯ) |
|
||||
| Mid | #(e) | #(ɤ) |
|
||||
| Low | #(a) | #(ɑ) |
|
||||
|
||||
Some syllables are marked with a high tone, indicated with an acute accent (e.g. «á»).
|
||||
|
||||
## Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
```ebnf
|
||||
word = {syll}+.
|
||||
syll = onset, vowel, [coda].
|
||||
|
||||
onset = consonant
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
- Obstruents are voiced in between voiced sounds.
|
||||
- Front vowels become central after linguolabial, alveolar, and uvular consonants.
|
||||
- Back vowels become central after dental and palatal consonants.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<!--
|
||||
- phrase boundaries marked by tone in some way
|
||||
- 3-way length distinction?
|
||||
- stress counting from the beginning of the word
|
||||
- a weird number base system (mixed base 8/4/...?)
|
||||
- grammatical metathesis?
|
||||
|
||||
- ergative, also in word order (XVS / AXVP)
|
||||
-->
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Palæo-lizard
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
"Palæo-lizard" is a placeholder name, obviously.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonology
|
||||
|
||||
## Inventory
|
||||
|
||||
| | Linguolabial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal |
|
||||
|------------:|:------------:|:------:|:--------:|:---------:|:-------:|:-----:|:------:|:-------:|
|
||||
| Plosive | #(t̼) | #(t̪) | #(t) | #(ʈ) | #(c) | #(k) | #(q) | #(ʔ) |
|
||||
| Nasal | #(n̼) | #(n̪) | #(n) | #(ɳ) | #(ɲ) | | #(ɴ) | |
|
||||
| Lateral | #(l̼) | #(l̪) | #(l) | #(ɭ) | | #(ʟ) | | |
|
||||
| Flap | #(ɾ̼) | #(ɾ̪) | #(ɾ) | #(ɽ) | | | | |
|
||||
| Trill | | | #(r) | #(ɽː) | | | #(ʀ) | |
|
||||
|
||||
| | Front | Back |
|
||||
|---------:|:-----:|:----:|
|
||||
| High | #(i) | #(ɯ) |
|
||||
| Mid | #(e) | #(ɤ) |
|
||||
| Low | #(a) | #(ɑ) |
|
||||
|
||||
Some syllables are marked with a high tone, indicated with an acute accent (#(́á)).
|
||||
|
||||
## Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
Syllable structure is CV(C), with the only restriction that #/h/ can't be in a consonant coda.
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
- Obstruents are voiced in between voiced sounds.
|
||||
- Front vowels become central after retroflex, velar, and uvular consonants.
|
||||
- Back vowels become central after linguolabial, dental, and palatal consonants.
|
||||
|
||||
# Pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
First person (singular) is #/n̪es/. Second person (any number) is #/qɑʀ/. Back references (below) are used instead of third person pronouns.
|
||||
|
||||
# Back references
|
||||
|
||||
CHANGE THESE
|
||||
|
||||
The form of adjacent back references alternate between vowel and consonant forms to form a short word. A single one on its own attaches to a dummy #/h/ in its vowel form.
|
||||
|
||||
Subscripts in glosses indicate what a given occurrence of a back reference points to.
|
||||
|
||||
| | Vowel | Consonant |
|
||||
|--------:|:-----:|:---------:|
|
||||
| #!REF1! | #(ɯ) | #(ɰ) |
|
||||
| #!REF2! | #(i) | #(j) |
|
||||
| #!REF3! | #(ᴇ) | #(r̪) |
|
||||
| #!REF4! | #(ɑ) | #(q) |
|
||||
| #!REF5! | #(a) | #(t̼) |
|
||||
| #!REF6! | #(ɤ) | #(n) |
|
||||
|
||||
# Examples
|
||||
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
n̪ɛs cir jɯ ʔis ɾi jɯ t̼a
|
||||
[n̪ɛs@a cir@b j@a-ɯ@b ʔis]@c ɾi@d j@c-ɯ@d t̼a
|
||||
[1SG@a house@b REF2@a-REF1@b go_to]@c quick@d REF2@c-REF1@d do
|
||||
I go to the house quickly
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Word list
|
||||
|
||||
- \#/cir/: house
|
||||
- \#/ɾi/: quick
|
||||
- \#/t̼a/: do
|
||||
- \#/ʔis/: go to
|
||||
- \#/ʔɑs/: go into
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,268 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Conlang syntax test cases
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
The contents of this page are mirrored from [here], as the domain has changed
|
||||
hands and the page no longer exists.
|
||||
|
||||
[here]: http://fiziwig.com/conlang/syntax_tests.html
|
||||
|
||||
# The Purpose of this List
|
||||
|
||||
> There are several collections of specimen sentences to translate into
|
||||
> a conlang, including 1200 sentences on this web site. As a general rule the
|
||||
> sources for these sentences have been elementary-level educational
|
||||
> publications meant to provide a student with rote practise exercises. This
|
||||
> means that the same sentence structure will appear many times with only
|
||||
> slight variations in the nouns and verbs used. For example, these sentences
|
||||
> from 1200 Graded Sentences for Analysis:
|
||||
>
|
||||
> * A cheerful fire is blazing on the hearth.
|
||||
> * Seven little sisters were walking in a row.
|
||||
> * Some beautiful roses are blooming in our garden.
|
||||
> * The boys are playing in the lot.
|
||||
> * The little girl was playing with her kitten.
|
||||
>
|
||||
> Granted, these sentences may use different conjugations of a verb, and
|
||||
> different declensions of the various nouns and pronouns, but aside from those
|
||||
> trivial difference, these sentences are essentially identical with respect to
|
||||
> the syntactical features they are meant to test or demonstrate. That kind of
|
||||
> repetition is fine for rote training, but it is not really necessary for
|
||||
> testing a conlang. To serve that purpose there needs to be only one sentence
|
||||
> of the type: "Roses are red."
|
||||
>
|
||||
> What is necessary is a variety of unique sentences each of which tests some
|
||||
> different aspect of the conlang. This collection was constructed by putting
|
||||
> together several more repetative lists and culling out that larger
|
||||
> collection, those sentences which duplicate syntactic principles already
|
||||
> present earlier in the list.
|
||||
>
|
||||
> Below are 218 sentences selected from a collection of 1200 sentences, with
|
||||
> all those that are essentially duplicates removed.
|
||||
>
|
||||
> Some sentences have been slightly modified to remove references to a specific
|
||||
> culture or time, to make the sentence more "universal" for conlangs of any
|
||||
> era or culture. For example "We went to London..." has been changed to "We
|
||||
> went to the village...". In other sentences allowances will have to made for
|
||||
> conlangs from cultures that don't have Mondays, windows, or snow. The
|
||||
> important thing is whether the conlang being tested can handle the meaning of
|
||||
> sentences of that general structure.
|
||||
|
||||
1. The sun shines.
|
||||
2. The sun is shining.
|
||||
3. The sun shone.
|
||||
4. The sun will shine.
|
||||
5. The sun has been shining.
|
||||
6. The sun is shining again.
|
||||
7. The sun will shine tomorrow.
|
||||
8. The sun shines brightly.
|
||||
9. The bright sun shines.
|
||||
10. The sun is rising now.
|
||||
11. All the people shouted.
|
||||
12. Some of the people shouted.
|
||||
13. Many of the people shouted twice.
|
||||
14. Happy people often shout.
|
||||
15. The kitten jumped up.
|
||||
16. The kitten jumped onto the table.
|
||||
17. My little kitten walked away.
|
||||
18. It's raining.
|
||||
19. The rain came down.
|
||||
20. The kitten is playing in the rain.
|
||||
21. The rain has stopped.
|
||||
22. Soon the rain will stop.
|
||||
23. I hope the rain stops soon.
|
||||
24. Once wild animals lived here.
|
||||
25. Slowly she looked around.
|
||||
26. Go away!
|
||||
27. Let's go!
|
||||
28. You should go.
|
||||
29. I will be happy to go.
|
||||
30. He will arrive soon.
|
||||
31. The baby's ball has rolled away.
|
||||
32. The two boys are working together.
|
||||
33. This mist will probably clear away.
|
||||
34. Lovely flowers are growing everywhere.
|
||||
35. We should eat more slowly.
|
||||
36. You have come too soon.
|
||||
37. You must write more neatly.
|
||||
38. Directly opposite stands a wonderful palace.
|
||||
39. Henry's dog is lost.
|
||||
40. My cat is black.
|
||||
41. The little girl's doll is broken.
|
||||
42. I usually sleep soundly.
|
||||
43. The children ran after Jack.
|
||||
44. I can play after school.
|
||||
45. We went to the village for a visit.
|
||||
46. We arrived at the river.
|
||||
47. I have been waiting for you.
|
||||
48. The campers sat around the fire.
|
||||
49. A little girl with a kitten sat near me.
|
||||
50. The child waited at the door for her father.
|
||||
51. Yesterday the oldest girl in the village lost her kitten.
|
||||
52. Were you born in this village?
|
||||
53. Can your brother dance well?
|
||||
54. Did the man leave?
|
||||
55. Is your sister coming for you?
|
||||
56. Can you come tomorrow?
|
||||
57. Have the neighbors gone away for the winter?
|
||||
58. Does the robin sing in the rain?
|
||||
59. Are you going with us to the concert?
|
||||
60. Have you ever travelled in the jungle?
|
||||
61. We sailed down the river for several miles.
|
||||
62. Everybody knows about hunting.
|
||||
63. On a Sunny morning after the solstice we started for the mountains.
|
||||
64. Tom laughed at the monkey's tricks.
|
||||
65. An old man with a walking stick stood beside the fence.
|
||||
66. The squirrel's nest was hidden by drooping boughs.
|
||||
67. The little seeds waited patiently under the snow for the warm spring sun.
|
||||
68. Many little girls with wreaths of flowers on their heads danced around the bonfire.
|
||||
69. The cover of the basket fell to the floor.
|
||||
70. The first boy in the line stopped at the entrance.
|
||||
71. On the top of the hill in a little hut lived a wise old woman.
|
||||
72. During our residence in the country we often walked in the pastures.
|
||||
73. When will your guests from the city arrive?
|
||||
74. Near the mouth of the river, its course turns sharply towards the East.
|
||||
75. Between the two lofty mountains lay a fertile valley.
|
||||
76. Among the wheat grew tall red poppies.
|
||||
77. The strong roots of the oak trees were torn from the ground.
|
||||
78. The sun looked down through the branches upon the children at play.
|
||||
79. The west wind blew across my face like a friendly caress.
|
||||
80. The spool of thread rolled across the floor.
|
||||
81. A box of growing plants stood in the Window.
|
||||
82. I am very happy.
|
||||
83. These oranges are juicy.
|
||||
84. Sea water is salty.
|
||||
85. The streets are full of people.
|
||||
86. Sugar tastes sweet.
|
||||
87. The fire feels hot.
|
||||
88. The little girl seemed lonely.
|
||||
89. The little boy's father had once been a sailor.
|
||||
90. I have lost my blanket.
|
||||
91. A robin has built his nest in the apple tree.
|
||||
92. At noon we ate our lunch by the roadside.
|
||||
93. Mr. Jones made a knife for his little boy.
|
||||
94. Their voices sound very happy.
|
||||
95. Is today Monday?
|
||||
96. Have all the leaves fallen from the tree?
|
||||
97. Will you be ready on time?
|
||||
98. Will you send this message for me?
|
||||
99. Are you waiting for me?
|
||||
100. Is this the first kitten of the litter?
|
||||
101. Are these shoes too big for you?
|
||||
102. How wide is the River?
|
||||
103. Listen.
|
||||
104. Sit here by me.
|
||||
105. Keep this secret until tomorrow.
|
||||
106. Come with us.
|
||||
107. Bring your friends with you.
|
||||
108. Be careful.
|
||||
109. Have some tea.
|
||||
110. Pip and his dog were great friends.
|
||||
111. John and Elizabeth are brother and sister.
|
||||
112. You and I will go together.
|
||||
113. They opened all the doors and windows.
|
||||
114. He is small, but strong.
|
||||
115. Is this tree an oak or a maple?
|
||||
116. Does the sky look blue or gray?
|
||||
117. Come with your father or mother.
|
||||
118. I am tired, but very happy.
|
||||
119. He played a tune on his wonderful flute.
|
||||
120. Toward the end of August the days grow much shorter.
|
||||
121. A company of soldiers marched over the hill and across the meadow.
|
||||
122. The first part of the story is very interesting.
|
||||
123. The crow dropped some pebbles into the pitcher and raised the water to the brim.
|
||||
124. The baby clapped her hands and laughed in glee.
|
||||
125. Stop your game and be quiet.
|
||||
126. The sound of the drums grew louder and louder.
|
||||
127. Do you like summer or winter better?
|
||||
128. That boy will have a wonderful trip.
|
||||
129. They popped corn, and then sat around the fire and ate it.
|
||||
130. They won the first two games, but lost the last one.
|
||||
131. Take this note, carry it to your mother; and wait for an answer.
|
||||
132. I awoke early, dressed hastily, and went down to breakfast.
|
||||
133. Aha! I have caught you!
|
||||
134. This string is too short!
|
||||
135. Oh, dear! the wind has blown my hat away!
|
||||
136. Alas! that news is sad indeed!
|
||||
137. Whew! that cold wind freezes my nose!
|
||||
138. Are you warm enough now?
|
||||
139. They heard the warning too late.
|
||||
140. We are a brave people, and love our country.
|
||||
141. All the children came except Mary.
|
||||
142. Jack seized a handful of pebbles and threw them into the lake.
|
||||
143. This cottage stood on a low hill, at some distance from the village.
|
||||
144. On a fine summer evening, the two old people were sitting outside the door of their cottage.
|
||||
145. Our bird's name is Jacko.
|
||||
146. The river knows the way to the sea.
|
||||
147. The boat sails away, like a bird on the wing.
|
||||
148. They looked cautiously about, but saw nothing.
|
||||
149. The little house had three rooms, a sitting room, a bedroom, and a tiny kitchen.
|
||||
150. We visited my uncle's village, the largest village in the world.
|
||||
151. We learn something new each day.
|
||||
152. The market begins five minutes earlier this week.
|
||||
153. Did you find the distance too great?
|
||||
154. Hurry, children.
|
||||
155. Madam, I will obey your command.
|
||||
156. Here under this tree they gave their guests a splendid feast.
|
||||
157. In winter I get up at night, and dress by yellow candlelight.
|
||||
158. Tell the last part of that story again.
|
||||
159. Be quick or you will be too late.
|
||||
160. Will you go with us or wait here?
|
||||
161. She was always, shabby, often ragged, and on cold days very uncomfortable.
|
||||
162. Think first and then act.
|
||||
163. I stood, a little mite of a girl, upon a chair by the window, and watched the falling snowflakes.
|
||||
164. Show the guests these shells, my son, and tell them their strange history.
|
||||
165. Be satisfied with nothing but your best.
|
||||
166. We consider them our faithful friends.
|
||||
167. We will make this place our home.
|
||||
168. The squirrels make their nests warm and snug with soft moss and leaves.
|
||||
169. The little girl made the doll's dress herself.
|
||||
170. I hurt myself.
|
||||
171. She was talking to herself.
|
||||
172. He proved himself trustworthy.
|
||||
173. We could see ourselves in the water.
|
||||
174. Do it yourself.
|
||||
175. I feel ashamed of myself.
|
||||
176. Sit here by yourself.
|
||||
177. The dress of the little princess was embroidered with roses, the national flower of the Country.
|
||||
178. They wore red caps, the symbol of liberty.
|
||||
179. With him as our protector, we fear no danger.
|
||||
180. All her finery, lace, ribbons, and feathers, was packed away in a trunk.
|
||||
181. Light he thought her, like a feather.
|
||||
182. Every spring and fall our cousins pay us a long visit.
|
||||
183. In our climate the grass remains green all winter.
|
||||
184. The boy who brought the book has gone.
|
||||
185. These are the flowers that you ordered.
|
||||
186. I have lost the book that you gave me.
|
||||
187. The fisherman who owned the boat now demanded payment.
|
||||
188. Come when you are called.
|
||||
189. I shall stay at home if it rains.
|
||||
190. When he saw me, he stopped.
|
||||
191. Do not laugh at me because I seem so absent minded.
|
||||
192. I shall lend you the books that you need.
|
||||
193. Come early next Monday if you can.
|
||||
194. If you come early, wait in the hall.
|
||||
195. I had a younger brother whose name was Antonio.
|
||||
196. Gnomes are little men who live under the ground.
|
||||
197. He is loved by everybody, because he has a gentle disposition.
|
||||
198. Hold the horse while I run and get my cap.
|
||||
199. I have found the ring I lost.
|
||||
200. Play and I will sing.
|
||||
201. That is the funniest story I ever heard.
|
||||
202. She is taller than her brother.
|
||||
203. They are no wiser than we.
|
||||
204. Light travels faster than sound.
|
||||
205. We have more time than they.
|
||||
206. She has more friends than enemies.
|
||||
207. He was very poor, and with his wife and five children lived in a little low cabin of logs and stones.
|
||||
208. When the wind blew, the traveler wrapped his mantle more closely around him.
|
||||
209. I am sure that we can go.
|
||||
210. We went back to the place where we saw the roses.
|
||||
211. "This tree is fifty feet high," said the gardener.
|
||||
212. I think that this train leaves five minutes earlier today.
|
||||
213. My opinion is that the governor will grant him a pardon.
|
||||
214. Why he has left the city is a mystery.
|
||||
215. The house stands where three roads meet.
|
||||
216. He has far more money than brains.
|
||||
217. Evidently that gate is never opened, for the long grass and the great hemlocks grow close against it.
|
||||
218. I met a little cottage girl; she was eight years old, she said.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,301 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Tengan (tté ŋa)
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<style>
|
||||
.script table { border: none; }
|
||||
</style>
|
||||
|
||||
<center style="margin-top: 2em">
|
||||
<img src=tte1ga.svg height=100>
|
||||
</center>
|
||||
|
||||
[SVG]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonology
|
||||
|
||||
## Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
Front Central Back
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
Close «i» #/i/ «y» #/ʉ/ «u» #/u/
|
||||
Mid «e» #/ɛ/ «o» #/ɔ/
|
||||
Open «a» #/ɑ/
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
There are three tones, indicated by diacritics:
|
||||
|
||||
- High, with an acute accent «á» #/ɑ˥/
|
||||
- Low, with no accent «a» #/ɑ˩/
|
||||
- Falling, with a grave accent «à» #/ɑ˥˨/
|
||||
|
||||
Vowels can be nasalised, which is indicated by an «n» following the vowel (and
|
||||
offglide if there is one).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Consonants
|
||||
|
||||
Labial Alveolar Retroflex Velar
|
||||
----------------- ----------- --------------- --------------- -----------
|
||||
Plosive «p ph pp» «t th tt» «d dh dd» «k kh kk»
|
||||
#/p pʰ pʼ/ #/t tʰ tʼ/ #/ʈ ʈʰ ʈʼ/ #/k kʰ kʼ/
|
||||
Click «px» «tx lx» «dx»
|
||||
#/ᵏʘ/ #/ᵏǀ ᵏǁ/ #/ᵏǃ/
|
||||
Affricate «ts tsh tts» «dz dzh ddz»
|
||||
#/ts tsʰ tsʼ/ #/ʈʂ ʈʂʰ ʈʂʼ/
|
||||
Lateral Affricate «tl tlh ttl» «dł dłh ddł»
|
||||
#/tɬ tɬʰ tɬʼ/ #/ʈꞎ ʈꞎʰ ʈꞎʼ/
|
||||
Fricative «f» «s sh» «z zh» «h»
|
||||
#/f/ #/s sʰ/ #/ʂ ʂʰ/ #/χ/
|
||||
Lateral Fricative «l» «ł»
|
||||
#/ɬ/ #/ꞎ/
|
||||
Nasal «m» «n» «ņ» «ŋ»
|
||||
#/m/ #/n/ #/ɳ/ #/ŋ/
|
||||
Nasal Click «mx» «nx nlx» «ņx»
|
||||
#/ɴʘ/ #/ɴǀ ɴǁ/ #/ɴ!/
|
||||
----------------- ----------- --------------- --------------- -----------
|
||||
|
||||
* Between two vowels or glides, non-aspirated pulmonic consonants become voiced:
|
||||
#/ɬ ꞎ/ become #[l ɭ].
|
||||
* Before #/i j/, #/x/ becomes #[ç]; before #/ɔ u w/ it becomes #[ɸ].
|
||||
* The phoneme #/χ/ changes based on the following vowel or glide:
|
||||
+ to #[ç] before #/i/ or #/j/, or
|
||||
+ to #[ɸ] before #/o/, #/u/, or #/w/.
|
||||
|
||||
The rest of the time it is _uvular_, not velar.
|
||||
* Syllable-final #/p t k/ are unreleased.
|
||||
- \#/ᵏǀj/ and #/ᵏǃj/ are pronounced #[ᵏǂ], and #/ɴǀj ɴ!j/ as #[ɴǂ].[^nc]
|
||||
|
||||
[^nc]: This is not true of #/ǁ/ because I can't hear any difference whatsoever between #[ǁ] and #[ǂˡ]. This might be why the latter doesn't have a symbol of its own.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Writing system
|
||||
|
||||
Tengan has a featural writing system similar to Hangul, called #|twén phỳk ná|, or 'syllable writing'. Each syllable is written in a block indicating different features of each part of the syllable.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Initials
|
||||
|
||||
Initials are classed first into six basic shaped based on place of articulation. Laterals are counted as distinct places.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=script>
|
||||
|
||||
------- ------- -------
|
||||
#|pa| #|da| #|la|
|
||||
#|ta| #|ka| #|ła|
|
||||
------- ------- -------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
Other consonants are built by systematically adding modifiers above these bases. For example, for #|ta|:
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=script>
|
||||
|
||||
-------- -------- --------- ---------
|
||||
#|tha| #|tta| #|txa| #|tsa|
|
||||
#|sa| #|sha| #|tsha| #|ttsa|
|
||||
#|na| #|nxa|
|
||||
-------- -------- --------- ---------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Glides
|
||||
|
||||
Glides look the same before and after a vowel, and also when it is the initial consonant.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=script>
|
||||
|
||||
-------- -------- -------- -------- ------- --------
|
||||
#|tja| #|twa| #|taj| #|taw| #|ja| #|wa|
|
||||
-------- -------- -------- -------- ------- --------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
The vowel symbols have no further internal structure.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=script>
|
||||
|
||||
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
|
||||
#|ta| #|ti| #|te| #|tu| #|to| #|ty|
|
||||
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Tones and nasalisation
|
||||
|
||||
The nasalisation is written below the offglide, and the tone after that.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=script>
|
||||
|
||||
-------- -------- --------
|
||||
#|ta| #|tá| #|tà|
|
||||
#|tan| #|tán| #|tàn|
|
||||
-------- -------- --------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Coda consonants
|
||||
|
||||
Coda consonants are the same as their initial counterparts, but are usually written slightly narrower.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=script>
|
||||
|
||||
------- -------- -------- --------
|
||||
#|ta| #|tat| #|tak| #|tap|
|
||||
------- -------- -------- --------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
There is an distinction between 'we' inclusive and exclusive of the listener(s).
|
||||
|
||||
Singular Plural
|
||||
-- ---------- -----------------
|
||||
1 #|fa| #|ŋa|, #|khwi|
|
||||
2 #|thò| #|dyt|
|
||||
3 #|zéj| #|ņaw|
|
||||
4 #|han| #|kkù|
|
||||
|
||||
\#|ŋa| is the inclusive pronoun and #|khwi| the exclusive.
|
||||
|
||||
Third and fourth person pronouns are used as determiners ('this' and 'that'); fourth for new information in the conversation, and third for old.
|
||||
|
||||
Honorific forms of non-first person pronouns add #|txiw| afterward. Humble first person pronouns add #|lok|. (#|ŋa| doesn't allow either.)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Verbs
|
||||
|
||||
## Aspect
|
||||
|
||||
Tense in Tengan is not expressed explicitly. The adverb #|dxop| 'earlier' is frequently used to emphasise an action took place in the past, but is not mandatory, and more specific time phrases are also common. The perfective aspect is marked using #|zú| after the modality marker.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Modality
|
||||
|
||||
The main verb of each clause requires a modality marker of some sort after it.
|
||||
|
||||
### Evidentials
|
||||
|
||||
The indicative mood is split into six evidentiality levels, indicating why and how strongly the speaker believes the information to be true:
|
||||
|
||||
* first-hand direct sensory information with #|sa|;
|
||||
* inferred with #|ddzé|;
|
||||
* assumed with #|kwé| (weaker than #|ddzé|);
|
||||
* reported (second-hand) with #|phàj|;
|
||||
* reported _dubious_ information with #|mot|;
|
||||
* \#|tow| for hypotheticals.
|
||||
|
||||
When telling a story from the third person, #|phàj| is used.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Interrogative
|
||||
|
||||
Yes-no questions are marked with #|maj|. Content questions, e.g., with #|fon| 'what', do not also use #|maj|.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Imperative
|
||||
|
||||
The imperative, with #|łó|, is used both for commands and plural propositions. The subject is not dropped in imperatives.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Pzò łó ŋa!
|
||||
pzò łó ŋa
|
||||
go IMP 1PL
|
||||
Let's go!
|
||||
```
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Pzò łó thò!
|
||||
pzò łó thò
|
||||
go IMP 2SG
|
||||
Go!
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Auxiliary verbs
|
||||
|
||||
* \#|dxùn| fail
|
||||
* \#|hék| not
|
||||
* \#|jat| repeatedly
|
||||
* \#|khéw| begin
|
||||
* \#|kzun| may
|
||||
* \#|mxá| try
|
||||
* \#|nỳ| must
|
||||
* \#|pojn| decide
|
||||
* \#|tsap| finish
|
||||
* \#|ttjò| stop, abandon
|
||||
* \#|zwèp| want
|
||||
* \#|kkjaw| can
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Fa khéw nak ddzé zú.
|
||||
fa khéw nak ddzé zú
|
||||
1SG begin sleep inferred PF
|
||||
I must have fallen asleep.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Fa jat mxá tlo sa fa zéj.
|
||||
fa jat mxá tlo sa zéj
|
||||
1SG repeatedly try call first_hand 3SG
|
||||
I keep trying to call him.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Attitude particles
|
||||
|
||||
Attitude particles can come before any word to indicate the speaker's feelings
|
||||
toward that referent or action. #|sén| is commonly attached to
|
||||
compliments, and #|kkow| or #|dùp| to excuses.
|
||||
|
||||
* \#|dùp| regret
|
||||
* \#|kkow| disappointment
|
||||
* \#|sén| approval
|
||||
* \#|dxák| disgust (vulgar)
|
||||
* \#|ppwa| surprise
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Thò hej sén lon phján!
|
||||
thò hej sén lon phján
|
||||
2SG do approval well piano
|
||||
Wow, you play the piano well!
|
||||
```
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Thò dxák hej dxák fon?!
|
||||
thò dxák hej dxák fon
|
||||
2SG disgust do disgust what
|
||||
What the __ did you __ing do?!
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Causatives
|
||||
|
||||
The verb #|phyn| is used to make a causative sentence, for example:
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```tgloss
|
||||
Zéj phyn sa zú fa ma sa zín!
|
||||
zéj phyn sa zú fa ma sa zín!
|
||||
3SG cause FHW PRF 1SG have FHW fear
|
||||
It frightened me!
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
- - -
|
||||
|
||||
- SVO
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
|
|||
kwá:
|
||||
t: v
|
||||
d: turn
|
||||
|
||||
kup:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- bolt
|
||||
- chunk of metal
|
||||
|
||||
nxej:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d: tool
|
||||
|
||||
dan:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d: sound
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
shet:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d: snake
|
||||
|
||||
ttsá:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- ground
|
||||
- underground
|
||||
|
||||
lwin:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d: dog
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ŋà:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- equal
|
||||
- be the same as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
zín:
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d: fear
|
||||
|
||||
ma:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d: have
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,733 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Untitled so far
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
<!-- Defining features:
|
||||
|
||||
- Nasal vowels
|
||||
- Initial mutations
|
||||
- Heavy fusion
|
||||
- Dual number
|
||||
- Strong #!IMPF!/#!PF! dichotomy
|
||||
- involving ablaut in _some_ conjugations
|
||||
- SVO, head initial, suffixing
|
||||
- uses Lántas' writing system but as an alphabet
|
||||
- multiple series of 3rd person pronouns
|
||||
-->
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonology
|
||||
|
||||
## Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
Front Back
|
||||
----- --------------- ----------------
|
||||
High #/i y/ #(i y) #/u/ #(u)
|
||||
Mid #/e ẽ/ #(e į) #/o õ/ #(o ų)
|
||||
Low #/a æ̃/ #(a ę) #/ɑ̃/ #(ą)
|
||||
----- --------------- ----------------
|
||||
|
||||
The nasal vowels, if not followed by another vowel, may also be spelt with a vowel followed by «n» or «ŋ». The vowel #/ẽ/ can also be written «yn/yŋ», and #/ɑ̃/ can be written «on/oŋ».
|
||||
|
||||
### Diphthongs
|
||||
|
||||
The following falling diphthongs are allowed in the same positions:
|
||||
|
||||
- Oral vowels: «ei ae oe ui iu eo ao ou», pronounced as written
|
||||
- Nasal vowels:
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
- \#/ẽĩ̯/ «iń», «yń»
|
||||
- \#/æ̃ĩ̯/ «ęi», «eń», «ein»/«eiŋ»
|
||||
- \#/ɑ̃ẽ̯/ «ąe», «ań», «oń», «aen»/«aeŋ», «oen»/«oeŋ»
|
||||
- \#/õẽ̯/ «ųi», «uń», «uin»/«uiŋ»
|
||||
- \#/ẽũ̯/ «įu», «im», «ym», «iun»/«iuŋ»
|
||||
- \#/æ̃õ̯/ «ęo», «em», «eon»/«eoŋ»
|
||||
- \#/ɑ̃õ̯/ «ąo», «am», «om», «aon»/«aoŋ», «oun»/«ouŋ»
|
||||
- \#/ɔ̃ũ̯/ «um»
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
In inflection classes, words ending with a nasal diphthong written with a consonant letter (e.g. «--iń») are treated as ending with a consonant, and after adding a suffix will often be resyllabified: «elem» #/eˈlæ̃ũ/ 'child' → «eˈle.mi» #/elemi/ 'children'.
|
||||
|
||||
### Umlaut
|
||||
|
||||
Many words undergo a vowel change when adding some inflectional endings:
|
||||
|
||||
- «o» and «a» become «e»;
|
||||
- «e» becomes «i»;
|
||||
- «ae», «oe», «eo», «ao», and «ou» all become «ei»;
|
||||
- «u» becomes «y»;
|
||||
- «ą» becomes «ę»;
|
||||
- «ę», «ų», and «ųi» become «į»;
|
||||
- «eń» and «uń» become «iń»;
|
||||
- «ąe», «ań», «oń», «ųi», «uń», «ęo» and «ąo» become «ęi» or «eń»;
|
||||
- «am» and «om» become «em»;
|
||||
- «em» becomes «im»;
|
||||
- «i», «y», «ei», «ui», «iu», «iń», «ęi», «įu», and «im» are unchanged.
|
||||
|
||||
This affects all vowels in the word: «pox́ae» 'sibling' → «pex́eig» 'siblings'.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
- Monophthongs other than «i y u» become #[ə] at the end of a word if not stressed.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Consonants
|
||||
|
||||
Labial Dental Alveolo-palatal Velar
|
||||
----------- --------------- ----------------- ----------------- ---------------
|
||||
Plosive #/p b/ #(p b) #/t d/ #(t d) #/k ɡ/ #(k g)
|
||||
Affricate #/ts dz/ #(c x) #/tɕ dʑ/ #(ć x́)
|
||||
Nasal #/m̥ m/ #(ṃ m) #/n̥ n/ #(ṇ n) #/ɲ̊ ɲ/ #(ṇ́ ń) #/ŋ̊ ŋ/ #(ŋ̇ ŋ)
|
||||
Fricative #/f/ #(f) #/x/ #(h/ṭ)
|
||||
#/s z/ #(s z) #/ɕ ʑ/ #(ś ź/ȝ)
|
||||
Approximant #/w/ #(w/ȝ)
|
||||
Lateral #/ɬ l/ #(ḷ l)
|
||||
Flap #/ɾ̥ ɾ/ #(ṛ r)
|
||||
|
||||
- Voiceless consonants are strongly aspirated, particularly continuants.
|
||||
- \#/l ɬ/ are strongly velarised except before #/i e ẽ æ̃ y/.
|
||||
- The letter «ȝ», usually arising from soft mutation of «g», denotes #/w/ before #/o õ a ɑ̃/, #/ʑ/ before #/i e ẽ æ̃ y/, and is silent before «u» or if not before a vowel. It originates from a former \*#/ɣ/. In endings for the dual it always denotes #/w/.
|
||||
- When not before a vowel, #/w/ is silent. (This situation arises from soft mutation of #/b/).
|
||||
- The letter «ḍ», originally #/ð/, is silent, but does split up diphthongs if it occurs between two vowels.
|
||||
- The sound #/x/ is spelt «ṭ» if it results from an aspirate mutation of «t», and otherwise is «h».
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
[EBNF], where `VV(x)` means all consonants `x` expands to must match in
|
||||
voicing: for example, the rule `VV(plosive, fricative)` allows «ps» and «bz»
|
||||
but not «pz».
|
||||
|
||||
[EBNF]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBNF
|
||||
|
||||
```ebnf
|
||||
word = {syll}, last syll.
|
||||
syll = [initial], vowel, [final].
|
||||
initial = consonant
|
||||
| VV(plosive, fricative)
|
||||
| VV(fricative, plosive)
|
||||
| VV(plosive or mut, liquid)
|
||||
| VV(('s' | 'z'), (nasal | liquid))
|
||||
| 'kn̥' | 'ɡn' | 'km̥' | 'ɡm' | 'pn̥' | 'bn'
|
||||
| velar, 'w'.
|
||||
final = consonant - nasal.
|
||||
last syll = [initial], vowel, [last final].
|
||||
last final = final
|
||||
| VV((consonant - (plosive | affricate)), plosive)
|
||||
| VV(plosive, fricative).
|
||||
plosive or mut = plosive | fricative | nasal | 'w'.
|
||||
(* plosives or mutations of plosives *)
|
||||
liquid = 'w' | 'l' | 'ɾ' | 'ɬ' | 'ɾ̥'.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
- If a voiceless sonorant is in a cluster, then the dot isn't written.
|
||||
- A syllable may be written with a nasal consonant in the coda, but this indicates a nasal vowel.
|
||||
- Written double consonants are pronounced the same as single ones: «blaosso» 'you drink' is pronounced #/ˈblɑo̯sə/, the same as if it were «blaoso».
|
||||
- Vowels in hiatus are rare, and result from «ḍ» becoming silent.
|
||||
|
||||
[S]: #mutations
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Mutations
|
||||
|
||||
The mutations are called _soft_ #!(S)!, _hard_ #!(H)!, _aspirate_ #!(A)!, and _nasal_ #!(N)!. Blank cells indicate that the consonant doesn't change. '–' indicates that «h» disappears in the soft mutation.
|
||||
|
||||
Soft mutation often causes consonants to change voicing. If they are part of a cluster, then this change propagates due to syllable structure constraints, but only the first one changes in the written form: «psu» 'tree' → «bsu» #/bzu/.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
Soft Hard Aspirate Nasal
|
||||
-------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
|
||||
'adult' #(poeś) #(boeś) #(foeś) #(ṃoeś)
|
||||
'horse' #(beis) #(weis) #(peis) #(meis)
|
||||
'eye' #(tis) #(dis) #(ṭis) #(ṇis)
|
||||
'fish' #(dwem) #(ḍwem) #(twem) #(nwem)
|
||||
'person' #(seḷo) #(zeḷo)
|
||||
'big' #(coros) #(xoros) #(soros) #(ṇoros)
|
||||
'many' #(xale) #(zale) #(cale) #(nale)
|
||||
-------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
Soft Hard Aspirate Nasal
|
||||
---------------- ------ ------ --------- ------
|
||||
#(ḷom) 'sun' #(lom) #(ṇom)
|
||||
#(lipśa) 'wall' #(nipśa)
|
||||
#(ṛ) #(r) #(ṇ)
|
||||
#(r) #(n)
|
||||
#(ć) #(x́) #(ś) #(ṇ́)
|
||||
#(x́) #(ź) #(ć) #(ń)
|
||||
#(ś) #(ź)
|
||||
---------------- ------ ------ --------- ------
|
||||
|
||||
#!S! #!H! #!A! #!N!
|
||||
------ ------ ------ ------ ------
|
||||
#(k) #(g) #(h) #(ŋ̇)
|
||||
#(g) #(ȝ) #(k) #(ŋ)
|
||||
#(h) #(–) #(ŋ̇)
|
||||
#(ṃ) #(m)
|
||||
#(ṇ) #(n)
|
||||
#(ṇ́) #(ń)
|
||||
#(ŋ̇) #(ŋ)
|
||||
------ ------ ------ ------ ------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Stress
|
||||
|
||||
Stress is on the final syllable of a word's stem, and is not moved by the
|
||||
addition of inflectional endings:
|
||||
«ṛimsą» #/r̥ẽũ̯ˈsɑ̃/ 'doctor',
|
||||
«ṛimsęȝi» #/r̥ẽũ̯ˈsæ̃.wi/ 'two doctors'.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Nouns
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns are differentiated by three animacy levels: human #!(HUM/H)!, other animate #!(ANI/A)!, and inanimate #!(INA/I)!. In some places (e.g. verb inflection), #!A! and #!I! are merged into non-human #!(N)!. A few nouns are higher on the animacy level than their meaning would usually dictate. Most nouns also distinguish between three numbers, singular, dual, and plural.
|
||||
|
||||
The cases are ergative, absolutive, and dative; the vast majority of prepositions govern the absolutive case.
|
||||
|
||||
N.B. All «ȝ» in dual endings denote #/w/, regardless of environment.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Human-animacy nouns
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>I</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns of human animacy ending in a vowel, with no stem change.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«seḷo» 'person'; «genu» 'friend'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ---------- ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(seḷo) #(seḷoȝe) #(seḷog)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(seḷot) #(seḷode) #(seḷok)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(seḷoḷ) #(seḷolȝe) #(seḷoh)
|
||||
------- ---------- ---------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ---------- ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(genu) #(genuȝe) #(genug)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(genut) #(genude) #(genuk)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(genuḷ) #(genulȝe) #(genuh)
|
||||
------- ---------- ---------- ----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>II</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns of human animacy ending in a vowel, featuring a vowel change in the stem in the dual and plural. In the dative dual, the second half of a final diphthong is lost (hence «pex́elȝi» instead of «pex́e**i**lȝi»).
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«pox́ae» 'sibling'; «ṛimsą» 'doctor'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(pox́ae) #(pex́eiȝi) #(pex́eig)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(pox́aet) #(pex́eidi) #(pex́eik)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(pox́aeḷ) #(pex́elȝi) #(pex́eih)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ ----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(ṛimsą) #(ṛimsęȝi) #(ṛimsęg)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(ṛimsąt) #(ṛimsędi) #(ṛimsęk)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(ṛimsąḷ) #(ṛimsęlȝi) #(ṛimsęh)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ ----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>III</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns of human animacy ending in a consonant. The final consonant is subjected to the soft mutation when an ending starting with a vowel is added.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«elem» 'child'; «poeś» 'adult'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(elem) #(elemeo) #(elemi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(elema) #(elemaḍi) #(elemik)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(elemle) #(elemlu) #(elemih)
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(poeś) #(poeźeo) #(poeźi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(poeźa) #(poeźaḍi) #(poeźik)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(poeśle) #(poeślu) #(poeźih)
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Animate nouns
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>I</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Animate nouns ending in a vowel with no stem change.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«geźy» 'dog', «pada» 'cat'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(geźy) #(geźyȝe) #(geźyf)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(geźyṭ) #(geźyḍȝe) #(geźyni)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(geźyh) #(geźyȝam) #(geźyȝa)
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(pada) #(padaȝe) #(padaf)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(padaṭ) #(padaḍȝe) #(padani)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(padah) #(padaȝam) #(padaȝa)
|
||||
------- ---------- ----------- ----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>II</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Animate nouns ending in a vowel with umlaut in the plural (but not dual).
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«bzola» 'snake', «ąeźe» 'lizard'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(bzola) #(bzolaȝe) #(bzele)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(bzolat) #(bzolade) #(bzeleni)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(bzolah) #(bzolaȝam) #(bzeleśi)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(ąeźe) #(ąeźeȝe) #(ęiźi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(ąeźet) #(ąeźede) #(ęiźini)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(ąeźeh) #(ąeźeȝam) #(ęiźiśi)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>III</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Animate nouns ending in a consonant with no stem change. The final consonant is subjected to the soft mutation when an ending starting with a vowel is added.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«klos» 'river', «beis» 'horse'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(klos) #(klosȝe) #(klozi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(kloza) #(klozaḍi) #(klozi)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(kloska) #(klosku) #(klozik)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(beis) #(beisȝe) #(beizi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(beiza) #(beizaḍi) #(beizi)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(beiska) #(beisku) #(beizik)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension <span class=c>IV</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Animate nouns ending in a consonant with umlaut in the dual and plural. The final consonant is subjected to the soft mutation when an ending starting with a vowel is added.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«maf» 'pet', «oŋ» 'rat'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(maf) #(mefȝi) #(mewi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(mawa) #(meweḍi) #(mewi)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(mafka) #(mefky) #(mewik)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(oŋ) #(eŋȝi) #(eŋi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(oŋa) #(eŋeḍi) #(eŋi)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(oŋka) #(eŋky) #(eŋik)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Inanimate nouns
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension I
|
||||
|
||||
Inanimate nouns ending in a vowel. Words of this type are never subject to vowel change.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«gwae» 'law', «bjeźi» 'door'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(gwae) #(gwaezo) #(gwael)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(gwae) #(gwaezo) #(gwael)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(gwaeh) #(gwaezam) #(gwaeh)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(bjeźi) #(bjeźizo) #(bjeźil)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(bjeźi) #(bjeźizo) #(bjeźil)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(bjeźih) #(bjeźizam) #(bjeźih)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Declension II
|
||||
|
||||
Inanimate nouns ending in a consonant. Words of this type are never subject to vowel change.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>«mes» 'hand', «śab» 'leg'</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(mes) #(mezo) #(mezi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(mes) #(mezo) #(mezi)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(meska) #(mezam) #(mezih)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
|
||||
#!SG! #!DU! #!PL!
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(śab) #(śawo) #(śawi)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(śab) #(śawo) #(śawi)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(śabka) #(śawam) #(śawih)
|
||||
------- ---------- ------------ -----------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Definiteness {#indef}
|
||||
|
||||
Indefinite nouns are preceded by the article «na», which causes nasal mutation if the word starts with a consonant, and causes a word starting with a vowel to be prefixed with «n». Definite nouns have no article.
|
||||
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
|
||||
- «ąeźe» '[the] lizard'
|
||||
- «na nąeźe» 'a lizard'
|
||||
- «klos» '[the] river'
|
||||
- «na ŋlos» 'a river'
|
||||
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Adjectives
|
||||
|
||||
Attributive adjectives precede the noun the modify, unless the indefinite article [«na»](#indef) is also present, in which case they follow the noun. If they follow the noun, then the first undergoes soft mutation if it ends with an oral vowel, and nasal mutation if it ends with a nasal vowel.
|
||||
|
||||
- «hwes coros ąeźe» '[the] good big lizard'
|
||||
(adjectives precede noun «ąeźe»)
|
||||
- «na nąeźe <u>w</u>es coros» 'a good big lizard'
|
||||
(«na» is present, so adjectives follow noun, and «hwes» is mutated after «--e»)
|
||||
|
||||
## Agreement
|
||||
|
||||
Attributive adjectives agree with the case but not number or animacy of their head noun. The endings depend on whether they end with a consonant or vowel.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>
|
||||
«hwes» 'good',
|
||||
«pou» 'black'
|
||||
</center>
|
||||
|
||||
------- ----------- -----------
|
||||
#!ABS! #(hwes) #(pou)
|
||||
#!ERG! #(hwes) #(pous)
|
||||
#!DAT! #(hweze) #(poun)
|
||||
------- ----------- -----------
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO__
|
||||
|
||||
- Dative forms are also used for possession:
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
- «tou ȝeźy» 'my dog';
|
||||
- «lu geźy» 'your and my dog';
|
||||
- «pox́aeḷ eo ȝeźy» 'the (my) sibling's dog'.
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
- When used possessively:
|
||||
- pronouns ending in a vowel cause a soft mutation;
|
||||
- those ending in «h» drop the «h» and cause an aspirate mutation.
|
||||
- Pronouns themselves ignore all mutations caused by preceding words.
|
||||
- The first-person dual has separate forms for
|
||||
"you and I" (inclusive, #!1IDU!)
|
||||
and "someone else and I" (exclusive, #!1EDU!).
|
||||
- **TODO**: multiple 3rd person pronouns (or none, and lots of demonstratives)
|
||||
|
||||
## Personal pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
#!ABS! #!ERG! #!DAT!
|
||||
-------- --------- --------- ---------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(to) #(tą) #(tou)
|
||||
#!1IDU! #(loe) #(loń) #(luh)
|
||||
#!1EDU! #(kos) #(kom) #(keh)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(fić) #(fim) #(feo)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(sou) #(som) #(sui)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(soe) #(soen) #(soeh)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(xe) #(xęi) #(dao)
|
||||
-------- --------- --------- ---------
|
||||
|
||||
#!ABS! #!ERG! #!DAT!
|
||||
-------- --------- --------- ---------
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(i) #(iŋ) #(eo)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(iza) #(zam) #(zaoh)
|
||||
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(wo) #(boń) #(beo)
|
||||
#!3ASG! #(go) #(gon) #(gu)
|
||||
#!3ADU! #(gwe) #(gwę) #(geo)
|
||||
#!3APL! #(si) #(siŋ) #(siu)
|
||||
-------- --------- --------- ---------
|
||||
|
||||
#!ABS! #!ERG! #!DAT!
|
||||
-------- --------- --------- ---------
|
||||
#!3ISG! #(e) #(e) #(ei)
|
||||
#!3IDU! #(ha) #(ham) #(geo)
|
||||
|
||||
#!3IPL! #(si) #(siŋ) #(siu)
|
||||
-------- --------- --------- ---------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Verbs
|
||||
|
||||
- Verbal inflection features a strong split between imperfective #!(IMPF)! and
|
||||
perfective #!(PF)!. The distinction is usually reflected by one of a few
|
||||
suffixes, some of which, marked with †, trigger umlaut. However, some verbs
|
||||
have different stems in the two aspects.
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
- «–te»^^†^^
|
||||
- «–s»
|
||||
- «–wa»
|
||||
- «–eś»^^†^^
|
||||
- «–»^^†^^ (i.e., only umlaut)
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
- Verbs distinguish only between human and non-human #!(N)!, and then only in
|
||||
the third person. The third person non-human dual is the same as the plural.
|
||||
|
||||
- The future tense is indicated by the particle «ze» immediately before the
|
||||
present form of the verb, which induces a soft mutation.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjugation <span class=c>I</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Verb stems ending in a vowel. If the stem comes immediately before a person ending starting with a vowel or «ȝ», then «i» and «u» become «e» and «o», respectively. The three types («a», «e»/«i», and «o»/«u») are the same apart from endings which introduce diphthongs. The «ȝ» in #!3NSG! is silent.)
|
||||
|
||||
<center>
|
||||
«knama--» («knemete--») 'eat',
|
||||
«dezno--» («deznos--») 'sleep',
|
||||
«gefi--» («gefiwa--») 'say'
|
||||
</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=tri>
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ -------------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(knaman) #(knamac)
|
||||
#!1DU! #(knamal) #(knamaḷu)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(knamawi) #(knamam)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(knamas) #(knamaos)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(knamazo) #(knamaozu)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(knamad) #(knamaco)
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(knamae) #(knamaḍu)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(knamaez) #(knamax́u)
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(knamao) #(knamak)
|
||||
#!3NSG! #(knamaȝ) #(knamake)
|
||||
#!3NPL! #(knamaś) #(knamazu)
|
||||
-------- ------------ -------------
|
||||
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ -------------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(deznon) #(deznoc)
|
||||
#!1DU! #(deznol) #(deznoḷu)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(deznowi) #(deznom)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(deznos) #(deznous)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(deznozo) #(deznouzu)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(deznod) #(deznoco)
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(deznoe) #(deznoḍu)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(deznoez) #(deznox́u)
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(deznou) #(deznok)
|
||||
#!3NSG! #(deznoȝ) #(deznoke)
|
||||
#!3NPL! #(deznoś) #(deznozu)
|
||||
-------- ------------ -------------
|
||||
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------------- --------------------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(gefin) #(gefic)
|
||||
#!1DU! #(gefil) #(gefiḷu)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(gefiwi) #(gefim)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(gefis) #(gef<u>e</u>os)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(gefizo) #(gef<u>e</u>ozu)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(gefid) #(gefico)
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(gef<u>e</u>i) #(gefiḍu)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(gef<u>e</u>iz) #(gefix́u)
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(gef<u>e</u>o) #(gefik)
|
||||
#!3NSG! #(gef<u>e</u>ȝ) #(gefike)
|
||||
#!3NPL! #(gefiś) #(gefizu)
|
||||
-------- ------------------- --------------------
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Conjugation <span class=c>II</span>
|
||||
|
||||
Verbs ending in «s», «z», «ś», or «ź». A «s»/«ś» becomes «z»/«ź» when a person or perfective ending beginning with a vowel or semivowel is added, and in #!3HSG!.
|
||||
|
||||
<center>
|
||||
«x́owas--» («x́eweste--») 'push',
|
||||
«nez--» («niześ--») 'hear'
|
||||
</center>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=tri>
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ -------------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(x́owaze) #(x́owaske)
|
||||
#!1DU! #(x́owaslu) #(x́owasklu)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(x́owazwi) #(x́owaskiŋ)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(x́owasso) #(x́owassoh)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(x́owasse) #(x́owaskeo)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(x́owast) #(x́owaskao)
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(x́owaz) #(x́owask)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(x́owaziz) #(x́owaskiz)
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(x́owazo) #(x́owasko)
|
||||
#!3NSG! #(x́owas) #(x́owask)
|
||||
#!3NPL! #(x́owassi) #(x́owasko)
|
||||
-------- ------------ -------------
|
||||
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(neze) #(nezge)
|
||||
#!1DU! #(nezlu) #(nezglu)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(nezwi) #(nezgiŋ)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(nezo) #(nezoh)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(neze) #(nezgeo)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(nezd) #(nezgao)
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(nez) #(nezg)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(neziz) #(nezgiz)
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(nezo) #(nezgo)
|
||||
#!3NSG! #(nez) #(nezg)
|
||||
#!3NPL! #(nezi) #(nezgo)
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## The copula
|
||||
|
||||
- The word 'to be' is highly irregular, and has a number of major differences from other verbs:
|
||||
- It maintains a distinction between nonhuman animate and inanimate subjects.
|
||||
- It has no perfective form.
|
||||
- If the subject is a personal pronoun then the pronoun is dropped.
|
||||
- Disyllabic forms are stressed on the first syllable.
|
||||
- Forms ending with a vowel cause a soft mutation on the following word.
|
||||
- The forms «wi wiȝ» are pronounced #/y wi/.
|
||||
- The citation form is «as».
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=tri>
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
#!1SG! #(zo) #(gac)
|
||||
#!1DU! #(sloe) #(glu)
|
||||
#!1PL! #(zy) #(gą)
|
||||
#!2SG! #(sou) #(bes)
|
||||
#!2DU! #(asse) #(beozu)
|
||||
#!2PL! #(ast) #(wzo)
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
#!3HSG! #(eń) #(gae)
|
||||
#!3HDU! #(ęs) #(gez)
|
||||
#!3HPL! #(am) #(gek)
|
||||
#!3ASG! #(wi) #(gae)
|
||||
#!3ADU! #(wiȝ) #(gi)
|
||||
#!3APL! #(am) #(x́eg)
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
|
||||
#!PRS! #!PST!
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
#!3ISG! #(as) #(ask)
|
||||
#!3IPL! #(eź) #(akko)
|
||||
-------- ------------ ------------
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Syntax
|
||||
|
||||
TODO
|
||||
|
||||
- NAdj
|
||||
- AVPX or VSX
|
||||
- If-then is concatenated clauses
|
||||
«Som gefes e---haeze to» "If you say it, I'll come."
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Numerals
|
||||
|
||||
--- ------- --- ----------- --- ---------- --- ---------
|
||||
1 #(nei) 6 #(lenei) 11 #(skonei) 16 #(benei)
|
||||
2 #(skou) 7 #(lezgou) 12 #(skogou) 17 #(bengou)
|
||||
3 #(bęi) 8 #(lewęi) 13 #(skobęi) 18 #(bęiwęi)
|
||||
4 #(zik) 9 #(lezik) 14 #(skozik) 19 #(bęzik)
|
||||
5 #(lef) 10 #(skolf) 15 #(bęif) 20 #(teiŋ)
|
||||
--- ------- --- ----------- --- ---------- --- ---------
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Examples
|
||||
|
||||
## North Wind and the Sun
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
_The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first succeeded in making the traveller take his cloak off should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew as hard as he could, but the more he blew the more closely did the traveller fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shined out warmly, and immediately the traveller took off his cloak. And so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two._
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Feiś Tekak no Ḷom af leśti haesko nesi geo glamas,
|
||||
ˈfeiɕ teˌkak nə ˈɬɑ̃õ̯ af leɕˌti ˈxae̯skə nesi ɡeo̯ ɡlaˈmas
|
||||
Feiś Tekak no Ḷom af leśti haes-ko nesi geo klamas
|
||||
wind north and sun anti same come-3NPL;PST about 3ADU;DAT strength
|
||||
The North Wind and the Sun were arguing about their strength
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
fei na seḷo heistesu śo we lin na ŋ̇ahao geśi.
|
||||
fei nə seˈɬo ˌxeistesu ɕə ˌwe lẽĩ̯ nə ŋ̊aˈxao̯ ɡeˈɕi
|
||||
fei na seḷo haes-te-su śo gwe lin na kahao geśi
|
||||
when a person come-PF-3HSG;PST near 3ADU with a cloak warm
|
||||
when someone came by with a warm cloak.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Gwe leśti heistesu, gon gnous seḷoḷ gy hantei kahao źopfu
|
||||
ˌɡwe leɕˈti ˌxeistesu | ɡɑ̃ ˌɡnou̯s seˈɬoɬ ˌɡy xanˈtei̯ kaˈxao̯ ʑopˌfu
|
||||
gwe leśti haes-te-su gon gnous seḷo-ḷ gy hante-i kahao źopfu
|
||||
3ASG same come-PF-3NPL;PST 3ASG;ERG cause person-DAT away wear-3HSG cloak;ABS first
|
||||
They agreed that whoever first makes the person take off their cloak
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
gon zeme klamas klou nae.
|
||||
ɡɑ̃ zeˌme klaˈmas klou̯ ˈnae̯
|
||||
gon zeme klamas klou nae
|
||||
3ASG;ERG have strength beyond other
|
||||
would be stronger than the other.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
```pgloss
|
||||
Feiś Tekak gy ńafusteke leśti brunisk,
|
||||
ˈfeiɕ teˌkak ɡy ɲaˈfustekə leɕˌti bɾuˈnisk
|
||||
Feiś_Tekak gy ńafus-te-ke leśti brunis-k
|
||||
north_wind away blow-PF-3NSG;PST as_much_as could-3NSG;PST
|
||||
The North Wind blew as hard as he could,
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
|
||||
<svg width="220" height="170" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
|
||||
<defs>
|
||||
<marker id="arrowhead"
|
||||
markerWidth="10" markerHeight="12"
|
||||
orient="auto" refX="1" refY="4"
|
||||
viewBox="0 0 12 10">
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 12 5 0 10" fill="black" />
|
||||
</marker>
|
||||
</defs>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="10" class="word">i</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="10" class="word">ui</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="85" class="word">ei</text>
|
||||
<text x="110" y="85" class="word">eu</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="65" class="word">ou</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="105" class="word">oi</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="160" class="word">ai</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="160" class="word">au</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<g stroke="black" marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" fill="transparent">
|
||||
<line x1="195" y1="10" x2="30" y2="10" /> <!-- ui -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="75" x2="10" y2="30" /> <!-- ei -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="95" y1="85" x2="30" y2="85" /> <!-- eu -> ei -->
|
||||
<path d="M 195 105 C 40 105, 40 105, 28 95" /> <!-- oi -> ei -->
|
||||
<path d="M 195 65 C 145 65, 145 65, 130 80" /> <!-- ou -> eu -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="150" x2="10" y2="105" /> <!-- ai -> ei -->
|
||||
<line x1="195" y1="160" x2="30" y2="160" /> <!-- ꜵu -> ai -->
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.3 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
|
||||
<svg width="220" height="170" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
|
||||
<defs>
|
||||
<marker id="arrowhead"
|
||||
markerWidth="10" markerHeight="12"
|
||||
orient="auto" refX="1" refY="4"
|
||||
viewBox="0 0 12 10">
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 12 5 0 10" fill="black" />
|
||||
</marker>
|
||||
</defs>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="10" class="word">i</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="10" class="word">u</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="85" class="word">e</text>
|
||||
<text x="110" y="85" class="word">ə</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="85" class="word">o</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="160" class="word">a</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<g stroke="black" marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" fill="transparent">
|
||||
<line x1="200" y1="10" x2="30" y2="10" /> <!-- u -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="75" x2="10" y2="30" /> <!-- e -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="100" y1="85" x2="30" y2="85" /> <!-- ə -> e -->
|
||||
<path d="M 200 95 C 165 120, 60 120, 25 95" /> <!-- o -> e -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="150" x2="10" y2="105" /> <!-- a -> e -->
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.1 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,404 @@
|
|||
seḷo:
|
||||
p: se.ˈɬo
|
||||
t: {n: [h, 1]}
|
||||
d: person
|
||||
|
||||
genu:
|
||||
p: ɡe.ˈnu
|
||||
t: {n: [h, 1]}
|
||||
d: friend
|
||||
|
||||
pox́ae:
|
||||
p: po.ˈdʑae̯
|
||||
t: {n: [h, 2]}
|
||||
d: sibling
|
||||
|
||||
ṛimsą:
|
||||
p: ɾ̥ĩũ̯̯.ˈsɑ̃
|
||||
t: {n: [h, 2]}
|
||||
d: doctor
|
||||
|
||||
elem:
|
||||
p: e.ˈlæ̃õ̯
|
||||
t: {n: [h, 3]}
|
||||
d: child
|
||||
|
||||
poeś:
|
||||
p: poe̯ɕ
|
||||
t: {n: [h, 3]}
|
||||
d: adult
|
||||
|
||||
geźy:
|
||||
p: ɡe.ˈʑy
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 1]}
|
||||
d: dog
|
||||
|
||||
pada:
|
||||
p: pa.ˈda
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 1]}
|
||||
d: cat
|
||||
|
||||
bzola:
|
||||
p: bzo.ˈla
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 2]}
|
||||
d: snake
|
||||
|
||||
ąeźe:
|
||||
p: ɑ̃ẽ̯.ˈʑe
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 2]}
|
||||
d: lizard
|
||||
|
||||
klos:
|
||||
p: klos
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 3]}
|
||||
d: river
|
||||
|
||||
beis:
|
||||
p: bei̯s
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 3]}
|
||||
d: horse
|
||||
|
||||
maf:
|
||||
p: maf
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 4]}
|
||||
d: pet
|
||||
|
||||
oŋ:
|
||||
p: õ
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 4]}
|
||||
d: rat
|
||||
|
||||
gwae:
|
||||
p: ɡwae̯
|
||||
t: {n: [i, 1]}
|
||||
d: law
|
||||
|
||||
beźi:
|
||||
p: be.ˈʑi
|
||||
t: {n: [i, 1]}
|
||||
d: door
|
||||
|
||||
mes:
|
||||
p: mes
|
||||
t: {n: [i, 2]}
|
||||
d: hand
|
||||
|
||||
śab:
|
||||
p: ɕab
|
||||
t: {n: [i, 2]}
|
||||
d: leg
|
||||
|
||||
hwes:
|
||||
p: xwes
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: good
|
||||
|
||||
pou:
|
||||
p: pou̯
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: black
|
||||
|
||||
to:
|
||||
p: to
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: I
|
||||
n: "ERG: tą; DAT: tou"
|
||||
|
||||
loe:
|
||||
p: loe̯
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: you and I
|
||||
n: "ERG: loń; DAT: luh"
|
||||
|
||||
fić:
|
||||
p: fitɕ
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: we
|
||||
n: "ERG: fim; DAT: feo"
|
||||
|
||||
sou:
|
||||
p: sou̯
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: you (singular)
|
||||
n: "ERG: som; DAT: sui"
|
||||
|
||||
soe:
|
||||
p: soe̯
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: you two
|
||||
n: "ERG: soen; DAT: soeh"
|
||||
|
||||
xe:
|
||||
p: dze
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: you (plural)
|
||||
n: "ERG: xęi; DAT: dao"
|
||||
|
||||
i:
|
||||
p: i
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: he/she (human)
|
||||
n: "ERG: iŋ; DAT: eo"
|
||||
|
||||
iza:
|
||||
p: i.ˈza
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: they two (human)
|
||||
n: "ERG: zam; DAT: zaoh"
|
||||
|
||||
wo:
|
||||
p: wo
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: 'they (plural, human)'
|
||||
n: "ERG: boń; DAT: beo"
|
||||
|
||||
go:
|
||||
p: ɡo
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: it (animate)
|
||||
n: "ERG: gon; DAT: gu"
|
||||
|
||||
gwe:
|
||||
p: ɡwe
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: they two (animate)
|
||||
n: "ERG: gwę; DAT: geo"
|
||||
|
||||
si:
|
||||
p: si
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: 'they (plural, animate or inanimate)'
|
||||
n: "ERG: siŋ; DAT: siu"
|
||||
|
||||
e:
|
||||
p: e
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: it (inanimate)
|
||||
n: "ERG: e; DAT: ei"
|
||||
|
||||
ha:
|
||||
p: xa
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
d: they two (inanimate)
|
||||
n: "ERG: ham; DAT: geo"
|
||||
|
||||
knama:
|
||||
p: kn̥a.ˈma
|
||||
t: {v: [1, te]}
|
||||
d: eat
|
||||
|
||||
dezno:
|
||||
p: dez.ˈno
|
||||
t: {v: [1, s]}
|
||||
d: sleep
|
||||
|
||||
gefi:
|
||||
p: ɡe.ˈfi
|
||||
t: {v: [1, wa]}
|
||||
d: say
|
||||
|
||||
x́owas:
|
||||
p: dʑo.ˈwas
|
||||
t: {v: [2, te]}
|
||||
d: push
|
||||
|
||||
nez:
|
||||
p: nez
|
||||
t: {v: [2, eś]}
|
||||
d: hear
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
feiś:
|
||||
p: fɛi̯ɕ
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 3]}
|
||||
d: wind
|
||||
|
||||
ḷom:
|
||||
p: ɬõũ̯
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 4]}
|
||||
d: sun
|
||||
|
||||
tekak:
|
||||
p: te.ˈkak
|
||||
t: [{n: [i, 2]}, adj]
|
||||
d: north
|
||||
|
||||
falig:
|
||||
p: fa.ˈliɡ
|
||||
t: [{n: [i, 2]}, adj]
|
||||
d: south
|
||||
|
||||
źolmu:
|
||||
p: ʑol.ˈmu
|
||||
t: [{n: [i, 2]}, adj]
|
||||
d: east
|
||||
|
||||
mesin:
|
||||
p: me.ˈsĩ
|
||||
t: [{n: [i, 2]}, adj]
|
||||
d: west
|
||||
|
||||
nok:
|
||||
p: nək
|
||||
t: conj
|
||||
d: and
|
||||
n:
|
||||
- nok before vowel
|
||||
- no /nə/ + hard mutation before consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
af:
|
||||
p: af
|
||||
t: adv
|
||||
d: anti-
|
||||
|
||||
leśti:
|
||||
p: leɕ.ˈti
|
||||
t: [adj, adv, conj]
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- the same
|
||||
- in the same way (DAT as)
|
||||
- as much (DAT as)
|
||||
|
||||
haes:
|
||||
p: xae̯s
|
||||
t: {v: [2, te]}
|
||||
d: come
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
nesi:
|
||||
p: ne.si
|
||||
t: pp
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- around
|
||||
- about/regarding (a topic)
|
||||
|
||||
klamas:
|
||||
p: kɬa.ˈmas
|
||||
t: n
|
||||
d: strength
|
||||
|
||||
fei:
|
||||
p: fei̯
|
||||
t: conj
|
||||
d: [when, while]
|
||||
n: "X fei Y: while X, Y"
|
||||
|
||||
śo:
|
||||
p: ɕə
|
||||
t: pp
|
||||
d: near
|
||||
n: soft mutation
|
||||
|
||||
lin:
|
||||
p: lĩ
|
||||
t: pp
|
||||
d: [with, using, holding]
|
||||
see: bewe
|
||||
|
||||
bewe:
|
||||
p: be.we
|
||||
t: pp
|
||||
d: [with, accompanied by]
|
||||
see: lin
|
||||
|
||||
kahao:
|
||||
p: ka.ˈxao̯̯
|
||||
t: {n: [i, 1]}
|
||||
d: cloak
|
||||
|
||||
geśi:
|
||||
p: ge.ˈɕi
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: thick
|
||||
|
||||
gnous:
|
||||
p: ɡnou̯̯s
|
||||
t: {v: [2, te]}
|
||||
d: cause
|
||||
n: causee in dative, followed by underlying clause without subject
|
||||
e:
|
||||
o: tą gnouze sui knamas e
|
||||
s: tą gnous-e sui knama-s e
|
||||
g: 1SG;ERG cause-1SG;PRS 2SG;DAT eat-2SG;PRS 3ISG
|
||||
t: I make you eat it
|
||||
|
||||
gy:
|
||||
p: ɡy
|
||||
t: [pp, adv]
|
||||
d: [away from, away]
|
||||
|
||||
hante:
|
||||
p: xan.ˈte
|
||||
t: {v: [1, s]}
|
||||
d: wear
|
||||
|
||||
źopfu:
|
||||
p: ʑop.ˈfu
|
||||
t: adv
|
||||
d: first
|
||||
|
||||
zeme:
|
||||
p: ze.ˈme
|
||||
t: {v: [1, '-']}
|
||||
d: have
|
||||
|
||||
klou:
|
||||
p: kɬou̯
|
||||
t: pp
|
||||
d: [beyond, more than]
|
||||
n: aspirate mutation
|
||||
|
||||
nae:
|
||||
p: nae̯̯
|
||||
t: [prn, adj]
|
||||
d: other
|
||||
|
||||
ńafus:
|
||||
p: ɲa.ˈfus
|
||||
t: {v: [2, te]}
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- breathe
|
||||
- 'gy ńafus':
|
||||
- breathe out
|
||||
- blow
|
||||
|
||||
brunis:
|
||||
p: bɾu.ˈnis
|
||||
t: {v: [2, wa]}
|
||||
d: can
|
||||
|
||||
psu:
|
||||
p: psu
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 2]}
|
||||
d: tree
|
||||
|
||||
coros:
|
||||
p: tsoˈɾos
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: big
|
||||
|
||||
as:
|
||||
p: as
|
||||
t: {v: *}
|
||||
d: be
|
||||
|
||||
tis:
|
||||
p: tis
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 3]}
|
||||
d: eye
|
||||
|
||||
dwem:
|
||||
p: dwæ̃õ̯
|
||||
t: {n: [a, 4]}
|
||||
d: fish
|
||||
|
||||
xale:
|
||||
p: dza.ˈle
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: [many, much]
|
||||
|
||||
lipśa:
|
||||
p: lip.ˈɕa
|
||||
t: {n: [i, 1]}
|
||||
d: wall
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,270 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: back on my bullshit
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
<center style="width: 70%; margin: auto; font-style: italic">
|
||||
What happens if Ancient Greek, Latin, and Welsh are mashed together by someone
|
||||
who doesn't know any of them? A big mess is what.
|
||||
</center>
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonology
|
||||
|
||||
## Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | Front | Mid | Back |
|
||||
|-----:|:-------------:|:-------------:|:-------------:|
|
||||
| High | #(i) #/i, iː/ | | #(u) #/u, uː/ |
|
||||
| Mid | #(e) #/ɛ, eː/ | #(ə) #/ə, ɘː/ | #(o) #/ɔ, oː/ |
|
||||
| Low | #(a) #/aː/ | #(a) #/ä/ | |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
* The allowed diphthongs #/ai̯ au̯ ei̯ eu̯ oi̯ ou̯ ui̯/. They are written as their
|
||||
two component vowels.
|
||||
* Length and stress are indicated [using diacritics]{#dia}:
|
||||
* stressed short vowels with an acute accent (#(á));
|
||||
* unstressed long vowels with a macron (#(ā));
|
||||
* stressed long vowels with a circumflex (#(â)).
|
||||
|
||||
Diphthongs have the diacritic on the first letter. Stress isn't indicated
|
||||
on monosyllabic words, unless inflections are added which cause the word to
|
||||
become multisyllabic.
|
||||
|
||||
### Umlaut
|
||||
|
||||
At certain times, either the last vowel, or all vowels in some words, will
|
||||
undergo *i*-umlaut, where they will move closer to #[i]. This process is
|
||||
reflected in the spelling of affected forms. Vowels move one step along the
|
||||
following graphs:
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
<object data=iuml-p.svg>
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
* \#(e → i)
|
||||
* \#(o, ə, a → e)
|
||||
* \#(u → y)
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
</object>
|
||||
<object data=iuml-d.svg>
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
* \#(ei → i)
|
||||
* \#(eu, oi, ai → ei)
|
||||
* \#(ou → eu)
|
||||
* \#(au → ai)
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
</object>
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
Forms which cause umlaut of the last vowel are marked with a †; forms causing
|
||||
umlaut of the whole words are marked ‡. Only some words are affected by umlaut;
|
||||
those which do are also marked with †.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Stress
|
||||
|
||||
Stress is unpredictable and is indicated with diacritics (see [above](#dia)).
|
||||
Monosyllabic words are unmarked for stress, but when inflections are added
|
||||
which give them more than one syllable, those forms of the word *are* marked.
|
||||
|
||||
Most affixes don't affect the stress; those which do are pointed out. Compound
|
||||
words have the primary stress on the last root.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Consonants
|
||||
|
||||
| | Labial | Coronal | Dorsal |
|
||||
|----------:|:-------------:|:-------------:|:-------------:|
|
||||
| Plosive | #(p b) #/p b/ | #(t d) #/t d/ | #(k g) #/k ɡ/ |
|
||||
| Fricative | #(f) #/f/ | #(s) #/s/ | #(h) #/χ/ |
|
||||
| Nasal | #(m) #/m/ | #(n) #/n/ | |
|
||||
| Lateral | | #(l) #/l/ | |
|
||||
| Flap | | #(r) #/ɾ/ | |
|
||||
| Semivowel | #(w) #/w/ | | #(y) #/j/ |
|
||||
|
||||
### Allophones
|
||||
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
* \#(s → ʃ / \_{C,#})
|
||||
* \#(s → z / {b, g}\_, \_{b, g, d})
|
||||
* \#(ɾ → ʃ / t\_)
|
||||
* \#(ɾ → ʒ / d\_)
|
||||
* \#(χ → ç / \_{i, iː, ɛ, eː})
|
||||
* \#(l → ɬ / #\_, \_#)
|
||||
* \#(ɾ → ɾ̥ / #\_, \_#)
|
||||
* \#(N → m / \_p, etc)
|
||||
* \#({b, d, g} → {p, t, k} / \_#)
|
||||
* \#({p, t, k} → {pʰ, tʰ, kʰ} / #\_V, V\_V)
|
||||
* \#(· → ɦ / V_V)
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
```ebnf
|
||||
word = {syll}+.
|
||||
syll = [onset], nucleus, [coda].
|
||||
onset = consonant
|
||||
| ['s'], (plosive | fricative | 'm'), ['ɾ' | 'l']
|
||||
| ('p' | 'k'), 's'
|
||||
| ('t' | 'd' | 'k' | 'ɡ'), 'm'
|
||||
| ('p' | 'b' | 'k' | 'ɡ'), 'n'.
|
||||
medial = ([glide], vowel) - ('yi' | 'wu').
|
||||
coda = consonant
|
||||
| 'm', ('p' | 'b')
|
||||
| 'n', ('t' | 'd' | 'k' | 'ɡ')
|
||||
| ('s' | 'l' | 'r'), plosive
|
||||
| plosive, 's'.
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Morphology
|
||||
|
||||
## Nouns
|
||||
|
||||
* cases: #!NOM!; #!ACC!; #!LOC!; #!ALL!; #!ABL!; #!VOC!
|
||||
* numbers:
|
||||
* \#!SG!: numbers ending in 1 other than 11; 0
|
||||
* \#!DU!: numbers ending in 2 other than 12
|
||||
* \#!PL!: otherwise
|
||||
* genders: animate #!(ANI)!, inanimate #!(INA)!, and mixed #!(MIX)!
|
||||
- \#!MIX! words inflect themselves like #!ANI!
|
||||
- \#!MIX! agreement: like #!ANI! in #!NOM!, #!ACC!, #!VOC!, otherwise
|
||||
like #!INA!
|
||||
* adjectives & def art agree with head noun
|
||||
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
- «nyā» cat #!ANI!
|
||||
- ǎweȠ child #!ANI!
|
||||
- «hwêha» road #!INA!
|
||||
- «kyeséi» kobold #!ANI!
|
||||
- «búses»† sky #!MIX!
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Declension I
|
||||
|
||||
Words ending in a short «e», «ə», or «a», indicated as «V» in the following
|
||||
table.
|
||||
|
||||
- The illicit sequence «-əi-» becomes «-ei-», and «-ii-» becomes «-i-».
|
||||
- If the penultimate syllable of the stem is short and stressed, and the
|
||||
ending begins with a long vowel, then the stress is moved to that long
|
||||
vowel.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!ANI.SG! | #!ANI.DU! | #!ANI.PL! | #!INA.SG! | #!INA.DU! | #!INA.PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:---------:|:---------:|:---------:|:---------:|:---------:|:---------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(--V) | #(--V̄g) | #(--Vn)‡ | #(--V) | #(--V̄g) | #(--V̄)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(--o) | #(--of) | #(--ī)‡ | #(--V̄) | #(--V̄f) | #(--ī)‡ |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(--Vd) | #(--Vds) | #(--Vid)‡ | #(--Vd) | #(--Vid) | #(--Vid)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(--Vls) | #(--Vlg) | #(--Vks)‡ | #(--Vl) | #(--V̄ks) | #(--V̄ks)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(--V̄st) | #(--V̄sk) | #(--V̄d)‡ | #(--V̄st) | #(--V̄d) | #(--V̄d)‡ |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(--Vi) | #(--Vig) | #(--Vin)‡ | #(--V) | #(--V̄g) | #(--V̄)‡ |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:---------:|:---------:|:----------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(éw·e) | #(ew·êg) | #(í·win)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(éw·o) | #(éw·of) | #(i·wî)‡ |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(éw·ed) | #(éw·eds) | #(í·wid)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(éw·els) | #(éw·elg) | #(í·wīks)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(ew·êst) | #(ew·êsk) | #(i·wîd)‡ |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(éw·ei) | #(ew·êig) | #(í·win)‡ |
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:-----------:|:-----------:|:-----------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(hwêh·a) | #(hwêh·āg) | #(hwêh·ā) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(hwêh·ā) | #(hwêh·āf) | #(hwêh·ī) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(hwêh·ad) | #(hwêh·aid) | #(hwêh·aid) |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(hwêh·als) | #(hwêh·āks) | #(hwêh·āks) |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(hwêh·āst) | #(hwêh·ād) | #(hwêh·ād) |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(hwêh·a) | #(hwêh·āg) | #(hwêh·ā) |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Declension II
|
||||
|
||||
Words ending in a long vowel or diphthong.
|
||||
|
||||
- Endings are the same for animate and inanimate.
|
||||
- Second declension nouns never experience umlaut.
|
||||
- If the stem ends in a front vowel «ē ī» or a diphthong ending in «i», then
|
||||
«ᴇ» denotes «e»; otherwise, «ə».
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:------:|:-------:|:-------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(--) | #(--k) | #(--n) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(--) | #(--k) | #(--n) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(--t) | #(--yᴇ) | #(--d) |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(--s) | #(--rᴇ) | #(--yᴇ) |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(--s) | #(--h) | #(--d) |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(--) | #(--k) | #(--n) |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:-----------:|:------------:|:------------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(kyeséi) | #(kyeséi·k) | #(kyeséi·n) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(kyeséi) | #(kyeséi·k) | #(kyeséi·n) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(kyeséi·t) | #(kyeséi·ye) | #(kyeséi·d) |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(kyeséi·s) | #(kyeséi·re) | #(kyeséi·ye) |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(kyeséi·s) | #(kyeséi·h) | #(kyeséi·d) |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(kyeséi) | #(kyeséi·k) | #(kyeséi·n) |
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:--------:|:---------:|:---------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(nyā) | #(nyā·k) | #(nyā·n) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(nyā) | #(nyā·k) | #(nyā·n) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(nyā·t) | #(nyâ·yə) | #(nyā·d) |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(nyā·s) | #(nyâ·rə) | #(nyâ·yə) |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(nyā·s) | #(nyā·h) | #(nyā·d) |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(nyā) | #(nyā·k) | #(nyā·n) |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Declension III
|
||||
|
||||
Words ending in a short vowel followed by «s».
|
||||
|
||||
- The illicit sequence «-əi» becomes «-ei», and «-ii» becomes «-i».
|
||||
- For these words the dual is the same as the plural.
|
||||
- Unlike in the first declension, the stress doesn't move.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU!/#!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:--------:|:-----------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(--Vs) | #(--V̄) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(--Vi)† | #(--V̄s) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(--Vnt) | #(--Vnī)‡ |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(--Vns) | #(--Vsi)† |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(--Vks) | #(--Vgos) |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(--V) | #(--V̄) |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
<figure>
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!SG! | #!DU!/#!PL! |
|
||||
|-------:|:---------:|:-----------:|
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #(búses) | #(búsē) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #(búsi)† | #(búsēs) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #(búsent) | #(bísinī) |
|
||||
| #!ALL! | #(búsens) | #(búsisi) |
|
||||
| #!ABL! | #(búseks) | #(búsegos) |
|
||||
| #!VOC! | #(búse) | #(búsē) |
|
||||
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
|
||||
<svg width="220" height="170" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
|
||||
<defs>
|
||||
<marker id="arrowhead"
|
||||
markerWidth="10" markerHeight="12"
|
||||
orient="auto" refX="1" refY="4"
|
||||
viewBox="0 0 12 10">
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 12 5 0 10" fill="black" />
|
||||
</marker>
|
||||
</defs>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="10" class="word">i</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="10" class="word">ui</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="85" class="word">ei</text>
|
||||
<text x="110" y="85" class="word">eu</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="65" class="word">ou</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="105" class="word">oi</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="160" class="word">ai</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="160" class="word">au</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<g stroke="black" marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" fill="transparent">
|
||||
<line x1="195" y1="10" x2="30" y2="10" /> <!-- ui -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="75" x2="10" y2="30" /> <!-- ei -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="95" y1="85" x2="30" y2="85" /> <!-- eu -> ei -->
|
||||
<path d="M 195 105 C 40 105, 40 105, 28 95" /> <!-- oi -> ei -->
|
||||
<path d="M 195 65 C 145 65, 145 65, 130 80" /> <!-- ou -> eu -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="150" x2="10" y2="105" /> <!-- ai -> ei -->
|
||||
<line x1="195" y1="160" x2="30" y2="160" /> <!-- ꜵu -> ai -->
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.3 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
|||
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8" standalone="no"?>
|
||||
<?xml-stylesheet type="text/css" href="/stylesheets/lang-svg.css"?>
|
||||
|
||||
<svg width="220" height="170" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
|
||||
<defs>
|
||||
<marker id="arrowhead"
|
||||
markerWidth="10" markerHeight="12"
|
||||
orient="auto" refX="1" refY="4"
|
||||
viewBox="0 0 12 10">
|
||||
<polygon points="0 0 12 5 0 10" fill="black" />
|
||||
</marker>
|
||||
</defs>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="10" class="word">i</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="10" class="word">u</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="85" class="word">e</text>
|
||||
<text x="110" y="85" class="word">ə</text>
|
||||
<text x="210" y="85" class="word">o</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<text x="10" y="160" class="word">a</text>
|
||||
|
||||
<g stroke="black" marker-end="url(#arrowhead)" fill="transparent">
|
||||
<line x1="200" y1="10" x2="30" y2="10" /> <!-- u -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="75" x2="10" y2="30" /> <!-- e -> i -->
|
||||
<line x1="100" y1="85" x2="30" y2="85" /> <!-- ə -> e -->
|
||||
<path d="M 200 95 C 165 120, 60 120, 25 95" /> <!-- o -> e -->
|
||||
<line x1="10" y1="150" x2="10" y2="105" /> <!-- a -> e -->
|
||||
</g>
|
||||
</svg>
|
||||
|
After Width: | Height: | Size: 1.1 KiB |
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
|||
digraph iumlaut {
|
||||
rankdir=RL;
|
||||
node [shape=plaintext width=0 height=0];
|
||||
|
||||
i1 [label=i];
|
||||
{e y} -> i1;
|
||||
{o ə æ} -> e;
|
||||
a -> æ;
|
||||
u -> y;
|
||||
|
||||
i2 [label=i];
|
||||
{ui ei} -> i2;
|
||||
ou -> eu;
|
||||
{oi eu æi} -> ei;
|
||||
au -> æi;
|
||||
}
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,260 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Zalajmkwély
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
# Phonology
|
||||
|
||||
## Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
| | Front | Back |
|
||||
|-----:|:----------------:|:----------------:|
|
||||
| High | #/i ɪ/ «y i» | #/u ʊ/ «ů u» |
|
||||
| Mid | #/e ɛ ɛ̃/ «é e į» | #/o ɔ õ/ «ó o ų» |
|
||||
| Low | #/a æ̃/ «ä ę» | #/ɑ ɒ̃/ «a ą» |
|
||||
|
||||
Words have vowel harmony in non-nasal vowels between "tense" and "lax". Vowels are also slightly longer when stressed. If a root contains only nasal vowels, then the harmony defaults to lax.
|
||||
|
||||
| | | | | | |
|
||||
|-------|------|------|------|------|------|
|
||||
| Tense | #(y) | #(ů) | #(é) | #(ó) | #(ä) |
|
||||
| Lax | #(i) | #(u) | #(e) | #(o) | #(a) |
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Consonants
|
||||
|
||||
| | Labial | Dental | Dorsal |
|
||||
|----------:|:------------:|:------------:|:------------:|
|
||||
| Plosive | #/p b/ «p b» | #/t d/ «t d» | #/k/ «k» |
|
||||
| Fricative | #/f/ «f» | #/s z/ «s z» | #/x ʁ/ «h ř» |
|
||||
| Nasal | #/m/ «m» | #/n/ «n» | #/ŋ/ «g» |
|
||||
| Other | #/w/ «w» | #/l ɾ/ «l r» | #/j/ «j» |
|
||||
|
||||
The sequence #/ŋŋ/ is written «ng» (and pronounced #[ŋɡ]).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
The basic syllable structure is $C(C)(J)V(J)(C(C)(s))$; allowed clusters at the start of a syllable are $Ps$, $Bz$, $\bar{C}L$, or #/mb nd ŋŋ/, and at the end are $L\bar{C}(s)$ and #/mp mb nt nd ŋk ŋŋ/, where:
|
||||
|
||||
<div class=twocol>
|
||||
- $V$ is a vowel,
|
||||
- $C$ is any consonant,
|
||||
- $\bar C$ is any consonant other than $L$ or $J$,
|
||||
- $L$ is one of #/l ɾ ʁ/,
|
||||
- $J$ is one of #/j w/,
|
||||
- $P$ is one of #/p t k/,
|
||||
- $B$ is one of #/b d ŋ/,
|
||||
- The sequences #/ɪj/, #/ij/, #/ʊw/, or #/uw/ are not allowed before another consonant.
|
||||
</div>
|
||||
|
||||
Alternatively, in [EBNF]:
|
||||
|
||||
```ebnf
|
||||
syllable = initial, [glide], nucleus, [final];
|
||||
initial = consonant
|
||||
| ('p' | 't' | 'k'), 's'
|
||||
| ('b' | 'd' | 'g'), 'z'
|
||||
| (consonant - liquid), liquid
|
||||
| 'mb' | 'nd' | 'ŋŋ';
|
||||
nucleus = (vowel, glide) - ('ɪj' | 'ij' | 'ʊw' | 'uw');
|
||||
final = nonglide, ['s']
|
||||
| [liquid], nonglide - liquid, ['s']
|
||||
| 'mp' | 'mb' | 'nt' | 'nd' | 'ŋk' | 'ŋŋ';
|
||||
nonglide = consonant - glide;
|
||||
glide = 'j' | 'w';
|
||||
liquid = 'l' | 'ɾ' | 'ʁ';
|
||||
```
|
||||
|
||||
[EBNF]: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Backus-Naur_form
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Stress
|
||||
|
||||
Stress falls on the last syllable of the stem. (In a compound word, the last syllable of the last stem.) Inflectional endings do not cause it to move.
|
||||
|
||||
- «fälés» 'woman' #/faˈleːs/
|
||||
- «fälésäm» 'woman.#!GEN!' #/faˈleː.sam/
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
- As mentioned, #/ŋŋ/ is pronounced #[ŋɡ].
|
||||
- \#/l/ is #[ɫ] anywhere except before one of #/j i/.
|
||||
- \#/p t k/ are affricated to #[pf ts kx] directly before a stressed vowel, and to #[pf tʃ kx] at the end of a word.
|
||||
- \#/b d/ become #[v ð] word finally if immediately preceded by a vowel.
|
||||
- \#/ŋ/ becomes #[ɡ] after another #/ŋ/, before #/z/, or when not next to a vowel.
|
||||
- \#/s z/ become #[ʃ ʒ] at the end of a word or before a plosive.
|
||||
- \#/d/ becomes #[dʒ] at the end of a word if _not_ directly preceded by a vowel.
|
||||
- \#/t d s z/ become #[tʃ dʒ ʃ ʒ] before one of #/j i e/. The #/j/ is then dropped if there was one.
|
||||
- \#/ɛ e/ are lowered to #/æ/ before a velar (including #[ɫ]).
|
||||
- A #[ʔ] is inserted into word boundaries with a vowel on both sides.
|
||||
|
||||
Voicing of consonants assimilates backwards over syllable boundaries, except when a nasal consonant is present, in which case the cluster always becomes voiced.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Morphology
|
||||
|
||||
## Verbs
|
||||
|
||||
Verbs do not inflect themselves, but the conjugation is reflected on a highly fused particle following the main verb. This particle inflects for person, gender (in the third person), number, tense, and a distinction between perfective/imperfective. The ‘citation form’ of this particle is «as», the #!1SG!;#!PRS!;#!IMP! form. The #!3X! form is used with a group of people/objects of multiple genders, as well as for unknown or indefinite referents (whether singular or plural), and impersonal sentences such as instructions on signs.
|
||||
|
||||
### Present
|
||||
|
||||
- «řazgų kéd as» 'I am eating bread'
|
||||
- «plas énlä» 'He sneezes'
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!IMPF SG! | #!PL! | #!PF SG! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|------:|:----------:|:-------:|:--------:|:-------:|
|
||||
| #!1! | #(as) | #(az) | #(és) | #(ez) |
|
||||
| #!2! | #(ad) | #(am) | #(ed) | #(ém) |
|
||||
| #!3A! | #(äly) | #(alis) | #(énly) | #(elis) |
|
||||
| #!3B! | #(älä) | #(älůs) | #(énlä) | #(élůs) |
|
||||
| #!3C! | #(äló) | #(alos) | #(énló) | #(elos) |
|
||||
| #!3X! | — | #(älós) | — | #(élós) |
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Past
|
||||
|
||||
- «řazgų kéd als» 'I was eating bread'
|
||||
- «řazgų kéd éls» 'I ate bread'
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!IMPF SG! | #!PL! | #!PF SG! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|------:|:----------:|:--------:|:--------:|:--------:|
|
||||
| #!1! | #(als) | #(ajz) | #(éls) | #(eliz) |
|
||||
| #!2! | #(ajd) | #(alm) | #(elid) | #(élym) |
|
||||
| #!3B! | #(äjlä) | #(äjlůs) | #(éllä) | #(élůs) |
|
||||
| #!3A! | #(äjly) | #(ajlis) | #(élly) | #(ellis) |
|
||||
| #!3C! | #(äjló) | #(ajlos) | #(élló) | #(ellos) |
|
||||
| #!3X! | — | #(äjlós) | — | #(éllós) |
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Future
|
||||
|
||||
- «řazgų kéd ojs» 'I will be eating bread'
|
||||
- «řazgų kéd éws» 'I will eat bread'
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!IMPF SG! | #!PL! | #!PF SG! | #!PL! |
|
||||
|------:|:----------:|:--------:|:--------:|:--------:|
|
||||
| #!1! | #(ojs) | #(wįz) | #(ews) | #(jųz) |
|
||||
| #!2! | #(wįd) | #(ólm) | #(jųd) | #(ewm) |
|
||||
| #!3B! | #(ójlä) | #(ójlůs) | #(éwlä) | #(éwlůs) |
|
||||
| #!3A! | #(ójly) | #(ojlis) | #(éwly) | #(ewlis) |
|
||||
| #!3C! | #(ójló) | #(ojlos) | #(éwló) | #(ewlos) |
|
||||
| #!3X! | — | #(ójlós) | — | #(éwlós) |
|
||||
|
||||
Questions, either of the yes/no or of the content kind, are indicated by a particle «ům» (which is also the verb 'to ask') appearing after the inflection of «as».
|
||||
|
||||
Other aspects and moods are indicated with auxiliary verbs.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Bolus hawa můtä jas jųz.
|
||||
bolus hawa můtä jas jųz
|
||||
tomorrow can start go 1PL;FUT;PRF
|
||||
We can set off tomorrow.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Pulų jafų ep äly ům?
|
||||
pu-lų jaf-ų ep äly ům
|
||||
what-ACC name-ACC have 2SG;PRS;IMP QU
|
||||
What is your name?
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Nouns & adjectives
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
### Case
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns have five cases: nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and locative. The last of these is used only with preposition-type words. As a result of the inflectional suffixes, nouns almost always end in a consonant. The only exception is words ending in #/ɪ/ or #/i/, which gain an extra #/j/ before the suffixes. The spelling similarly gains a «–j».
|
||||
|
||||
Nouns are divided into a few classes. Each class requires the use of a specific inflection class of «as», labelled #!A!, #!B!, or #!C!. The conventional labels for the classes are:
|
||||
|
||||
I. Sapient #!(A)! sapients
|
||||
II. Water #!(B)! bodies of water, and the sky
|
||||
III. Ground #!(A)! the ground, rocks, metals, chemical elements
|
||||
IV. Artifice #!(C)! handheld tools, small plastic items, electronics
|
||||
V. Spiritual #!(C)! gods, the mind & soul, large natural events, language
|
||||
VI. Containers #!(B)! boxes, pans, bowls, wardrobes, etc;
|
||||
beds, chairs, and other furniture for sitting or lying on
|
||||
VII. Clothing #!(B)! clothing and carried objects like umbrellas and bags
|
||||
VIII. Food #!(C)! food and drink
|
||||
IX. Animal #!(B)! animals (including mythical creatures)
|
||||
|
||||
(**TODO** zk names for genders)
|
||||
|
||||
Not all nouns fall into the class which the labels would suggest, and if none of the labels fit then the choice is arbitrary. (As is usual with #!NOM!–#!ACC! languages, #!NOM!;#!SG! is the citation form in dictionaries.) People's names are assigned to whichever class they choose.
|
||||
|
||||
| | | #!I! | #!II! | #!III! | #!IV! | #!V! | #!VI! | #!VII! | #!VIII! | #!IX! |
|
||||
|-------:|------:|:-----------:|:-----------:|:----------:|:---------:|:---------:|:----------:|:----------:|:----------:|:----------:|
|
||||
| | | 'woman' | 'lake' | 'iron' | 'tool' | 'life' | 'cup' | 'shoe' | 'bread' | 'dog' |
|
||||
| #!NOM! | #!SG! | #(fälés) | #(dusal) | #(klůp) | #(řas) | #(kól) | #(mbuz) | #(gřub) | #(řazg) | #(kląs) |
|
||||
| | #!PL! | #(fälésé) | #(dusala) | #(klůpä) | #(řasa) | #(kólä) | #(mbuze) | #(gřube) | #(řazgį) | #(kląse) |
|
||||
| #!ACC! | #!SG! | #(fälésų) | #(dusalų) | #(klůpů) | #(řasol) | #(kólų) | #(mbuzol) | #(gřubę) | #(řazgų) | #(kląsų) |
|
||||
| | #!PL! | #(fälésów) | #(dusaloh) | #(klůpůf) | #(řasuf) | #(kólůh) | #(mbuzuf) | #(gřubęw) | #(řazgoh) | #(kląsow) |
|
||||
| #!GEN! | #!SG! | #(fälésäm) | #(dusalam) | #(klůpym) | #(řasim) | #(kóläm) | #(mbuzat) | #(gřubam) | #(řazgim) | #(kląsam) |
|
||||
| | #!PL! | #(fälésäz) | #(dusalat) | #(klůpyt) | #(řasit) | #(kóläz) | #(mbuzaz) | #(gřubat) | #(řazgįz) | #(kląsaz) |
|
||||
| #!DAT! | #!SG! | #(fälésój) | #(dusale) | #(klůpój) | #(řasoj) | #(kólé) | #(mbuze) | #(gřuboj) | #(řazgai) | #(kląsi) |
|
||||
| | #!PL! | #(fälésůd) | #(dusaloj) | #(klůpůd) | #(řasud) | #(kólój) | #(mbuzoj) | #(gřubud) | #(řazged) | #(kląsid) |
|
||||
| #!LOC! | #!SG! | #(fälésés) | #(dusales) | #(klůpés) | #(řases) | #(kólés) | #(mbuzes) | #(gřubes) | #(řazges) | #(kląses) |
|
||||
| | #!PL! | #(fälésęts) | #(dusalęts) | #(klůpęts) | #(řasęts) | #(kólęts) | #(mbuzęts) | #(gřubęts) | #(řazgęts) | #(kląsęts) |
|
||||
|
||||
Adjectives, including genitive nouns, agree in case with their head noun, but not number. Adjectives, except for possessive pronouns, attached to a genitive noun agree with that noun's head, but not with the genitive noun itself.
|
||||
|
||||
- \#!NOM!: «bym» 'good'
|
||||
- \#!ACC!: «bymů»
|
||||
- \#!DAT!: «bymó»
|
||||
- \#!LOC!: «bymés»
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
## Case
|
||||
|
||||
| | #!NOM! | #!ACC! | #!GEN! | #!DAT! | #!LOC! |
|
||||
|---------:|:------:|:-------:|:-------:|:-------:|:------:|
|
||||
| #!1SG! | #(yn) | #(iwn) | #(ym) | #(ém) | #(yné) |
|
||||
| #!1PL! | #(fę) | #(fęw) | #(fénó) | #(fejm) | #(fęj) |
|
||||
| #!2SG! | #(ol) | #(ow) | #(ů) | #(wą) | #(wój) |
|
||||
| #!2PL! | #(zůl) | #(zow) | #(zów) | #(zům) | #(zůj) |
|
||||
| #!3SG.A! | #(sem) | #(sju) | #(só) | #(sem) | #(sęs) |
|
||||
| #!3SG.B! | #(lem) | #(lew) | #(ló) | #(lem) | #(lęs) |
|
||||
| #!3SG.C! | #(em) | #(ä) | #(aw) | #(äm) | #(ęs) |
|
||||
| #!3PL.A! | #(gej) | #(gęw) | #(déw) | #(gim) | #(gįs) |
|
||||
| #!3PL.B! | #(gaj) | #(gąw) | #(djó) | #(gam) | #(gąs) |
|
||||
| #!3PL.C! | #(gó) | #(gů) | #(gů) | #(gam) | #(gąs) |
|
||||
| #!3PL.X! | #(gew) | #(gejų) | #(déw) | #(gam) | #(gąs) |
|
||||
|
||||
# Syntax
|
||||
|
||||
## Questions
|
||||
|
||||
To form a yes/no question, the particle «ům» is added to the end of the sentence.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
Bymů bälsůh ep ad ům?
|
||||
bym-ů bäls-ůh ep ad ům
|
||||
good-ACC mood-ACC;PL have 2SG;PRS;IMPF QU
|
||||
Are you feeling good?
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
||||
To answer a question, conjugate «as» appropriately, and follow with «řab» for agreement and «zol» for disagreement. In formal circumstances the main verb stem may be echoed before the «as». Before «zol», a «s» or «z» at the end of the form of «as» is dropped.
|
||||
|
||||
<figure class=glosses>
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
As řab.
|
||||
as řab
|
||||
1SG;PRS;IMPF CONFIRM
|
||||
Yes, I am.
|
||||
```
|
||||
```gloss
|
||||
A zol.
|
||||
a(s) zol
|
||||
1SG;PRS;IMPF DENY
|
||||
No, I am not.
|
||||
```
|
||||
</figure>
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,310 @@
|
|||
# "dem" can be used equally as pronoun or adjective
|
||||
|
||||
zalaj:
|
||||
t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d: speakers of Zalajmkwély
|
||||
|
||||
kwély:
|
||||
t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d: [language, speech]
|
||||
|
||||
kéd:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d: eat
|
||||
|
||||
plas:
|
||||
t: vi
|
||||
d: [sneeze, burst]
|
||||
|
||||
hawa:
|
||||
t: v aux
|
||||
d: be able to
|
||||
|
||||
můtä:
|
||||
t: v aux
|
||||
d: start to
|
||||
|
||||
jas:
|
||||
t: vi
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- go
|
||||
- come
|
||||
|
||||
ům:
|
||||
- t: vi
|
||||
d: ask
|
||||
- t: part
|
||||
d: (question marker)
|
||||
|
||||
pu:
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
i: {acc: pů, dat: puwo, gen: pwe, loc: pwes}
|
||||
d: [what, which, who]
|
||||
n: >
|
||||
appears at beginning of main clause taking the case inflection of a noun
|
||||
clause
|
||||
|
||||
jaf:
|
||||
t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d: name
|
||||
|
||||
# TODO
|
||||
bolus:
|
||||
t: adv
|
||||
d: tomorrow
|
||||
|
||||
ep:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- have (abstract or inalienable entities, pets, etc)
|
||||
- be (state, mood, etc)
|
||||
- believe
|
||||
|
||||
sejm:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- have (concrete alienable inanimate objects)
|
||||
- own
|
||||
- hold
|
||||
|
||||
fälés:
|
||||
t: {n: 1}
|
||||
d: woman
|
||||
|
||||
dusal:
|
||||
t: {n: 2}
|
||||
d: lake
|
||||
|
||||
klůp:
|
||||
t: {n: 3}
|
||||
d: iron
|
||||
|
||||
řas:
|
||||
t: {n: 4}
|
||||
d: tool
|
||||
|
||||
kól:
|
||||
t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d: [life, soul]
|
||||
|
||||
mbuz:
|
||||
t: {n: 6}
|
||||
d: cup
|
||||
|
||||
křub:
|
||||
t: {n: 7}
|
||||
d: shoe
|
||||
|
||||
řazag:
|
||||
t: {n: 8}
|
||||
d: bread
|
||||
|
||||
kląs:
|
||||
t: {n: 9}
|
||||
d: dog
|
||||
|
||||
kwint:
|
||||
t: {n: 3}
|
||||
d: north
|
||||
|
||||
róls:
|
||||
t: {n: 3}
|
||||
d: south
|
||||
|
||||
néf:
|
||||
t: {n: 1}
|
||||
d: east
|
||||
|
||||
jųz:
|
||||
t: {n: 1}
|
||||
d: west
|
||||
|
||||
floks:
|
||||
t: {n: 1}
|
||||
d: wind
|
||||
n: always plural
|
||||
|
||||
syg:
|
||||
t: {n: 1}
|
||||
d: sun
|
||||
|
||||
naza:
|
||||
t: v aux
|
||||
d: do repeatedly
|
||||
|
||||
ubi:
|
||||
t: v aux
|
||||
d: do excessively
|
||||
|
||||
twyz:
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
i: {acc: tjů, gen: twym, dat: twijo, loc: twije}
|
||||
d: [each other, the other(s)]
|
||||
|
||||
kwyz:
|
||||
t: prn
|
||||
i: {acc: kjů, gen: kwym, dat: kwijo, loc: kwije}
|
||||
d: [each, themselves]
|
||||
|
||||
yn:
|
||||
t: conj
|
||||
d: [and, with]
|
||||
n: pronounced as į
|
||||
see: log
|
||||
|
||||
log:
|
||||
t: {pp: dat}
|
||||
d: [using, with]
|
||||
see: yn
|
||||
|
||||
dä:
|
||||
t: dem
|
||||
d: [all, every]
|
||||
|
||||
éfé:
|
||||
- t: {pp: loc}
|
||||
d: beyond
|
||||
- t: {pp: gen}
|
||||
d: more than
|
||||
e:
|
||||
- o: éfé ym zog
|
||||
t: taller than me
|
||||
- o: tobzuf éfé ym sejm älä
|
||||
t: he has more money than me
|
||||
|
||||
zog:
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: [tall, long]
|
||||
|
||||
tobza:
|
||||
t: {n: 3}
|
||||
d: money
|
||||
n: always in plural
|
||||
|
||||
kósét:
|
||||
t: {n: 9}
|
||||
d: strength
|
||||
|
||||
fi:
|
||||
t: dem
|
||||
i: {acc: fju, gen: fį, dat: fo, loc: fes}
|
||||
d: this
|
||||
|
||||
fja:
|
||||
t: dem
|
||||
i: {acc: fjů, gen: fit, dat: fot, loc: fęts}
|
||||
d: this
|
||||
|
||||
fą:
|
||||
t: dem
|
||||
i: {acc: fąu, gen: fą, dat: fąu, loc: fąs}
|
||||
d: that
|
||||
|
||||
fama:
|
||||
t: dem
|
||||
i: {acc: famų, gen: fam, dat: famo, loc: famęts}
|
||||
d: those
|
||||
|
||||
gaząd:
|
||||
t: {n: 2}
|
||||
d: point in time
|
||||
|
||||
el:
|
||||
t: {pp: loc}
|
||||
d: during
|
||||
|
||||
jąws:
|
||||
t: {n: 2}
|
||||
d: man
|
||||
|
||||
sék:
|
||||
- t: {n: 1}
|
||||
d: person, human
|
||||
- t: {suf: [v, n]}
|
||||
d: -er
|
||||
n: also -jąus & -fälés
|
||||
|
||||
nam:
|
||||
t: {pp: loc}
|
||||
d: past
|
||||
|
||||
nam jas:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d: pass by
|
||||
see: [nam, jas]
|
||||
|
||||
swal:
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: warm
|
||||
|
||||
plejn:
|
||||
t: {n: 7}
|
||||
d: cloak
|
||||
|
||||
az:
|
||||
t: part
|
||||
d: (relativiser)
|
||||
e:
|
||||
o: kląsų ep az jąus
|
||||
t: the man with a dog
|
||||
|
||||
näzén:
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: [united, joined, together]
|
||||
|
||||
zaka:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d: take
|
||||
|
||||
rų:
|
||||
t: {pp: loc}
|
||||
d: from
|
||||
|
||||
päsů:
|
||||
t: v aux
|
||||
d: (causative)
|
||||
|
||||
zeze:
|
||||
t: {pp: loc}
|
||||
d: [between, among]
|
||||
|
||||
bym:
|
||||
t: adj
|
||||
d: good
|
||||
|
||||
bäls:
|
||||
t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d: [mood, mental state]
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
řab:
|
||||
t: part
|
||||
d: used when affirming a yes/no question or when answering a content question
|
||||
|
||||
zol:
|
||||
t: part
|
||||
d: used when denying a yes/no question
|
||||
|
||||
gů:
|
||||
t: vt
|
||||
d: make
|
||||
|
||||
zřat:
|
||||
- t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- thought
|
||||
- "zřatų gů": to think
|
||||
- t: {suf: [n GEN, n]}
|
||||
d: study of
|
||||
|
||||
zřatamzřat:
|
||||
t: {n: 5}
|
||||
d: logic
|
||||
see: zřat
|
||||
|
||||
mlos:
|
||||
t: {n: 6}
|
||||
d:
|
||||
- number
|
||||
- "mlosol gů": to count
|
||||
- mlosatzřat: number theory
|
||||
Loading…
Reference in New Issue