--- title: Lántas—Nouns backname: Lántas backlink: ../laantas ... Nouns are the words which name and refer to specific entities. Lántas is unusual in that words which are often considered to form a separate "adjective" class, or, occasionally, a subset of verbs, are also (the genitive case of) nouns. # Number The basic form of a noun is its singular, in all cases. The plural is formed by adding: * «-al» to a word ending in «l» or «ł», * «-l» to a word ending in a vowel, or * «-ł» to a word ending in a consonant, syllabic or not, other than «l». This plural form can also be applied to names of people. In this case it forms what is called an _associative plural_, and refers to a person plus a group associated with them, usually their family or friend group.
```gloss ǧunail ǧunai-l stick-PL sticks ``` ```gloss Jánimł Jáni-m-ł John-DEF-PL John and his friends ```
# Core cases {#corecases} Declension for the core cases of «nú» 'man' and «lun» 'road' are shown below. Some of the endings are slightly different in the case of a stem ending in a consonant or vowel, and if the ending starts with multiple consonants the final one of the stem is dropped.
|   | Singular | Plural | |----------------------:|:---------|:-----------| | Nominative #!(NOM)! | «nú» | «nú·l» | | Genitive #!(GEN)! | «nú·t» | «nú·t·ł» | | Comitative #!(COM)! | «nú·kas» | «nú·kas·ł» | | Caritive #!(CAR)! | «nú·ssa» | «nú·ssa·l» | | Instrumental #!(INS)! | «nú·la» | «nú·la·l» | | Essive #!(ESS)! | «nú·gu» | «nú·gu·l» | | Translative #!(TRA)! | «nú·sti» | «nú·sti·l» | | Exessive #!(EXE)! | «nú·ču» | «nú·ču·l» | |   | Singular | Plural | |-------:|:--------------|:----------------| | #!NOM! | «lun» | «lun·ł» | | #!GEN! | «lu~~n~~·t» | «lun·t·ł» | | #!COM! | «lun·kas» | «lun·kas·ł» | | #!CAR! | «lu~~n~~·ssa» | «lu~~n~~·ssa·l» | | #!INS! | «lun·la» | «lun·la·l» | | #!ESS! | «lun·gu» | «lun·gu·l» | | #!TRA! | «lu~~n~~·sti» | «lu~~n~~·sti·l» | | #!EXE! | «lun·ču» | «lun·ču·l» |
The _nominative_ is the subject of sentences, and the unmarked form. The _genitive_ is used for the object of sentences, the possessive, and for modifying other nouns (see [below](#adjectivals)).
```gloss Jánim línait bairusi. Jáni-m línai-t bairu-si John-DEF mouse-GEN see-RPST John saw a mouse. ``` ```gloss Jánimat línai Jáni-ma-t línai John-DEF-GEN mouse John's mouse ``` ```gloss ausut línai ausu-t línai large-GEN mouse a large mouse ```
For _inalienable_ possession (body parts, family members, etc), the [definite](#definiteness) is usually used instead of an explicit genitive construction.
```gloss Nattumatł bairusina. nattu-ma-t-ł bairu-si-na parent-DEF-GEN-PL see-PST-1SG I saw my [the] parents. ```
The _comitative_ case is used for 'and' between two nouns, as well as 'with' in the sense of 'accompanied by'. It is used on all but the _last_ noun being conjoined, with the last one taking the semantic case for the whole sequence. The opposite case, the _caritive_, means 'without', and is also used for _negative_ possessive statements. (See the adessive, described below, for affirmative statements.)
```gloss suksł ká suksł ká they;COM I they and I ``` ```gloss Kalńkas þasit bairusina. kalń-kas þasi-t bairu-si-na cat-COM dog-GEN see-RPST-1SG I saw a cat and a dog. ``` ```gloss Sairiassa aina. sairia-ssa ai-na money-CAR be-1SG I don't have any money. ``` ```gloss Kat fadaukas ká rut ǧimamlis šikkúsi. kat fadau-kas ká rut ǧima-m-li-s šikkú-si my friend-COM I his house-DEF-IN-LAT go-RPST I went with my friend to his house. ```
The most common use of the _instrumental_ case is the [theme] of ditransitive sentences (while the recipient is in the genitive). It is also used for 'with' as in 'using', in distributive phrases such as «kallila» 'in threes, in sets of three, three each', for quantity expressions such as units, and quantifiers like 'every'. [theme]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundative_language
```gloss Sanǧula paraina. sanǧu-la parai-na pen-INS write-1SG I write with a pen. ``` ```gloss kalli litrala tippi kalli litra-la tippi three litre-INS water three litres of water ``` ```gloss nakasnala hámal nakasnala háma-l every;INS country-PL every country ``` ```gloss nala núl nala nú-l any;INS person-PL some people ``` ```gloss nai rala númł nai ra(n)-la nú-m-ł one thing-INS person-DEF-PL one of the people ``` ```gloss nala númł nala nú-m-ł any;INS person-DEF-PL some of the people ```
The _essive_ case indicates a state, while the _translative_ and _exessive_ cases indicate a change of state. The translative marks the new state, and the exessive the old. The essive and exessive are most commonly used with comparatives (see [below](#adjectivals)). __TODO: examples__ # Locational cases The locational cases are formed by pairs of suffixes, one for the type of motion and one for the orientation or part of the target object.[^tsez] Unlike for the core cases, the endings are the same regardless of whether the stem ends in a consonant or vowel, so they are only listed for «nú». These cases have formulaic names, e.g., 'adessive' (at), 'absuperlative' (from above), and so on. [^tsez]: You might think that this sounds too mathematical or artificial to occur in a natural language, but in fact some Caucasian languages, such as [Tsez] and [Archi], do exactly this. [Tsez]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez_language "Tsez on Wikipedia" [Archi]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archi_language "Archi on Wikipedia" * _ad--_ (_al--_): 'at' * _in--_ (_il--_): 'in' * _pre--_: 'in front of' * _post--_: 'behind' * _inter--_: 'between' or 'among' * _super--_: 'on top of' or 'over' * _sub--_: 'below' or 'under' * _apud--_: 'near' or 'next to' * _--essive_: 'at' or 'on' * _--lative_: 'towards' * _ab--lative_: 'away from' * _per--lative_: 'through' or 'along'
| | | Essive (ESS) | Lative (LAT) | Ab--lative (ABL) | Per--lative (PRL) | |-----------:|------:|--------------|--------------|------------------|-------------------| | Ad– | #!SG! | «nú·sa» | «nú·sa·s» | «nú·sa·n» | «nú·sa·ri» | | #!(AD)! | #!PL! | «nú·sa·l» | «nú·sa·s·ł» | «nú·sa·n·ł» | «nú·sa·ri·l» | | In– | #!SG! | «nú·li» | «nú·li·s» | «nú·li·n» | «nú·li·ri» | | #!(IN)! | #!PL! | «nú·li·l» | «nú·li·s·ł» | «nú·li·n·ł» | «nú·li·ri·l» | | Pre– | #!SG! | «nú·ðu» | «nú·ðu·s» | «nú·ðu·n» | «nú·ðu·ri» | | #!(PRE)! | #!PL! | «nú·ðu·l» | «nú·ðu·s·ł» | «nú·ðu·n·ł» | «nú·ðu·ri·l» | | Post– | #!SG! | «nú·gi» | «nú·gi·s» | «nú·gi·n» | «nú·gi·ri» | | #!(POST)! | #!PL! | «nú·gi·l» | «nú·gi·s·ł» | «nú·gi·n·ł» | «nú·gi·ri·l» | | Inter– | #!SG! | «nú·nua» | «nú·nua·s» | «nú·nua·n» | «nú·nua·ri» | | #!(INTER)! | #!PL! | «nú·nua·l» | «nú·nua·s·ł» | «nú·nua·n·ł» | «nú·nua·ri·l» | | Super– | #!SG! | «nú·ba» | «nú·ba·s» | «nú·ba·n» | «nú·ba·ri» | | #!(SUPER)! | #!PL! | «nú·ba·l» | «nú·ba·s·ł» | «nú·ba·n·ł» | «nú·ba·ri·l» | | Sub– | #!SG! | «nú·ku» | «nú·ku·s» | «nú·ku·n» | «nú·ku·ri» | | #!(SUB)! | #!PL! | «nú·ku·l» | «nú·ku·s·ł» | «nú·ku·n·ł» | «nú·ku·ri·l» | | Apud– | #!SG! | «nú·mi» | «nú·mi·s» | «nú·mi·n» | «nú·mi·ri» | | #!(APUD)! | #!PL! | «nú·mi·l» | «nú·mi·s·ł» | «nú·mi·n·ł» | «nú·mi·ri·l» |
* Subessive is used for: * 'in the opinion of': «Kaku manifnut ai.» That's pleasant to me/I like that. - Superessive is used for: - 'about': «Suba jaisi fína.» I dreamt about you. * \#!(AD--LAT)! «Dufnamsas júlisina.» I stuck it onto the wall. * \#!(AD--ESS)! «Ǧimamsa aihapa?» Are you at home? * \#!(IN--LAT)! «Sihamgit ǧimamlis šikkúmána.» I'll be going home soon. * \#!(PRE--PRL)! «Sabut kalń káðuri narasi.» A black cat passed in front of me. * \#!(POST--ESS)! «Ǧimamgi waibifás.» They're playing round the back of the house. * \#!(AD--PRL)! «Lunsari šikkúsina.» I went down the road. * \#!(IN--PRL)! «Lunliri šikkúsina.» I went across the road. * \#!(APUD--PRL)! «Lunmiri šikkúsina.» I followed (alongside) the river. The orientation suffixes give rise to the following words:
- «fansað»: surface - «fanlið»: interior - «fanduð»: front - «fangið»: back - «fannuað»: company - «fambað»: top - «fankuð»: bottom - «fammið»: vicinity
# Definiteness The definite suffix for nouns (DEF) is «-m», and is used more frequently than 'the' in English. For example, in the second sentence below Sam has one dog, and in the third he is implied to have several. The names of people and places are also definite. After a consonant or «-ń», the definite suffix is «-ḿ»; the sequence «ńḿ» is pronounced as a single syllable, as #/nm̩/. After «-m» or «-ḿ», the suffix is «-am». The definite suffix occurs _between_ the stem and the case ending. Between the «-m» form and a case suffix starting with a consonant cluster, or the genitive singular «-t», an extra epenthetic «-a» is added.
```gloss guwanḿt samńḿ guwan-ḿ-t samń-ḿ sun-DEF-GEN colour-DEF the colour of the sun ``` ```gloss Sámimat þasi Sami-ma-t þasi Sam-DEF-GEN dog one of Sam's dogs ``` ```gloss Sámimat þasim Sami-ma-t þasim Sam-DEF-GEN dog-DEF Sam's dog ```
The definite suffix is used: * When the referent is old information already mentioned. «Pas nú bairusina. Nai rala núm manifnut gašnat ippausi.» I saw two people. One of them was wearing a nice shirt. * For people, places, countries, and other proper names. «Danielḿ Włjáhámamli nuabia.» Daniel lives in Austria. * In time phrases with «gimi». «Gimimli lána.» I'm doing it now. However, «naigimi» 'sometime' is indefinite. «Naigimili lámána.» I'll do it at some point. * In statements of general fact. «Númsal pasla aðal ai.» Humans have two eyes. * __TODO: ?__ The definite suffix is _not_ used (in contrast to English): * In superlatives. «Milnutlit aifa.» It's the smallest. * __TODO: ?__ # Adjectivals Most words considered as adjectives in other languages are in fact grammatically nouns in Lántas; words such as «sabu» can be translated as 'the colour black'. When one noun modifies another attributively, the [genitive case](#corecases) suffix «-(a)t» is used. Additional adjectives after the first additionally take a special conjunctive suffix «-as», similar to the comitative case. Adjectives, like other noun modifiers, precede the head noun in most cases. However, they can follow it if they indicate a property considered inherent to the objects in question. Genitive forms can be used as adverbs with the suffix «-tta»; the conjunctive variant is «-ttás».
```gloss sabut þasi sabu-t þasi black-GEN dog a black dog ``` ```gloss líbisat þasi líbis-at þasi happy-GEN dog a happy dog ``` ```gloss sabut líbistas þasi sabu-t líbis-t-as þasi black-GEN happy-GEN-CONJ dog a happy black dog ``` ```gloss Línaim sihatta irhi. línai-m siha-tta irhi mouse-GEN small-ADV squeak The mouse is squeaking quietly. ```
From adjectivals, several further derivations can be made: the _equative_, which expresses that two objects have an equal measure of some property; the _comparative_, which says that one object has more of a property than another object; and the _superlative_, which claims that an object has the most of a property. Derivation from «gaisi» 'white':
------------------- -------------- Equative (EQU) «gaisi·t·sat» Comparative (CMP) «gaisi·t·pat» Superlative (SUPL) «gaisi·t·lit» ------------------- --------------
The noun being compared with is in the [essive case](#corecases) for the equative, and the exessive for the comparative.
```gloss ǧimagu ausutsat ǧima-gu ausu-t-sat house-ESS big-GEN-EQU as big as a house ``` ```gloss fíraču panísatpat fíra-ču panísa-t-pat sky-EXE blue-GEN-CMP bluer than the sky ```