start adding lántas pages
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---
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title: Conlangs
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toc: false
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hide-footer: true
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...
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[Yeah](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructed_language).
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The ones I have anything written up for, in order of detail, and with a couple
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of buzzwords each:
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Yeah. The ones I have anything written up for, in order of detail, and with a
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couple of buzzwords each:
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* **[Lántas]** `/laːntas/`, which is the language which has gone longest
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without me abandoning it. It has lots of noun cases and syllabic consonants,
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@ -18,3 +17,5 @@ of buzzwords each:
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* **[Zalajmkwély]** `/zɑlɑɪmkweˈliː/`, which was originally from a "design
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a conlang in an hour" challenge thing but then I got kind of attached to it.
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It has nine genders and vowel harmony.
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[Lántas]: laantas
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---
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title: List of abbreviations
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hidetoc: true
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backname: Lántas
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backlink: ../laantas
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...
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:::threecol
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1
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: first person
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2
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: second person
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3
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: third person
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CAR
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: caritive case
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ABL
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: --ablative case
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AD
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: ad-- case
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ADV
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: adverbial
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AGT
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: agentive
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APUD
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: apud-- case
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CMP
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: comparative
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COM
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: comitative case
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CONJ
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: adjectival conjunction
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DEF
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: definite
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DIM
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: diminutive
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DPST
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: distant past
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EQU
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: equative
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ESS
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: essive case
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EXE
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: exessive case
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FUT
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: future
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GEN
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: genitive case
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IN
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: in-- case
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INS
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: instrumental case
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INT
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: inter-- case
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LAT
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: --lative case
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NEG
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: negative
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NOM
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: nominaliser
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: nominative case
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OBJ
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: object
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PL
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: plural
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POST
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: post-- case
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PRE
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: pre-- case
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PRL
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: --perlative case
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PSV
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: passive
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QU
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: question suffix
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RCP
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: reciprocal
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RFL
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: reflexive
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RPST
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: recent past
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SBJ
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: subject
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SG
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: singular
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SPL
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: superlative
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SUB
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: sub-- case
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SUP
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: super-- case
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TRA
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: translative case
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:::
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@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
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---
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title: Lántas
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toc: false
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...
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1. [Phonology](phono.html)
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2. [Writing system] need to extract from the old mess
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3. [Nouns](nouns.html)
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4. [Pronouns, etc](prons.html)
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5. [Verbs](verbs.html)
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6. [Numbers](numbers.html)
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7. [Syntax] not done yet
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8. [Examples] need to fix the script stuff
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9. [List of abbreviations](abbrevs.html)
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10. [Dictionary](words.yaml) need to present in more readable way
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@ -0,0 +1,451 @@
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---
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title: Lántas nouns
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backname: Lántas
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backlink: .
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...
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Lántas is unusual (as far as I know) in that words which are often considered
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to form a separate "adjective" class, or, a subset of verbs, are in fact (the
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genitive case of) nouns.
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# Number
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The basic form of a noun is its singular, in all cases. The plural is formed by adding:
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- `{-al}` to a word ending in `{l}` or `{ł}`,
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- `{-l}` to a word ending in a vowel, or
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- `{-ł}` to a word ending in a consonant, syllabic or not, other than `{l}`.
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This plural form can also be applied to names of people. In this case it forms
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what is called an _associative plural_, and refers to a person plus a group
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associated with them, usually their family or friend group.
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:::glosses
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- ǧunail
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- ǧunai-l
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- stick-PL
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- sticks
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------------
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- Jánimł
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- Jáni-m-ł
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- John-DEF-PL
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- John and his friends
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:::
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# Definiteness
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The definite suffix for nouns `!(DEF)!` is usually `{-m}`, and is used more
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frequently than 'the' in English. For example, in the first sentence below Sam
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has one dog, but in the second he is implied to have several. The names of
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people and places are also definite.
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The suffix has a few different forms depending on how the word ends:
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Ending Suffix Examples
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------------------------- --------- --------------------------------
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`{m}` or `{ḿ}` `{-am}` `{šaksḿ}` 'the ash',
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**TODO word ending in m**
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other consonant or `{ń}` `{-ḿ}` `{lántasḿ}` 'the language',
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`{kášńḿ}` 'the lizard'
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vowel, `{ŕ}`, or `{ł}` `{-m}` `{luwam}` 'the truth',
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`{laksŕm}` 'the fish',
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`{ustaiþłm}` 'the singer'
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------------------------- --------- --------------------------------
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A sequence `{ńḿ}` formed in this way is pronounced as `/nm̩/`. In other words,
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`{kášńḿ}` has *two* syllables, not three like it is written. An extra `{-a}` is
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inserted after the `{-m}` form of the suffix if it is needed due to another
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suffix following it.
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:::glosses
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- Sámimat þasim
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- Sami-ma-t þasi-m
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- Sam-DEF-GEN dog-DEF
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- Sam's dog
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---
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- Sámimat þasi
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- Sami-ma-t þasi
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- Sam-DEF-GEN dog
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- one of Sam's dogs
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:::
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:::glosses
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- guwanḿt samńḿ
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- ˈɡu.wa.nm̩t ˈsam.nm̩
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- guwan-ḿ-t samń-ḿ
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- sun-DEF-GEN colour-DEF
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- the colour of the sun
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:::
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## Using the definite suffix
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The definite suffix is used:
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- When the referent is old information already mentioned.
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- `{Pas nú bairusina. Nai rala núm manifnut gašnat ippausi.}`\
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I saw two people. One of them was wearing a nice shirt.
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- For people, places, countries, and other proper names.
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- `{Þuð pas kášńł ǧiššimamba nuabia.}`\
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Those two lizards live above the bakery.
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- In time phrases with `{gimi}`. However, `{naigimi}` 'sometime' is indefinite.
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- `{Gimimli lána.}`\
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I'm doing it now.
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- `{Naigimimli lámána.}`\
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I'll do it at some point.
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- In statements of general fact.
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- `{Númsal pasla aðal ai.}`\
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Humans have two eyes.
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- __TODO: ?__
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The definite suffix is _not_ used (in contrast to English):
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- In superlatives.
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- `{Milnutlit aifa.}`\
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It's the smallest.
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- __TODO: ?__
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# Core cases {#corecases}
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Declension for the core cases of `{nú}` 'man' and `{lun}` 'road' are shown
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below. Some of the endings are slightly different in the case of a stem ending
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in a consonant or vowel, and if the ending starts with multiple consonants the
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final one of the stem is dropped.
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:::figure
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`!SG!` `!PL!`
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----------------------- ----------- -------------
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Nominative `!(NOM)!` `{nú}` `{nú·l}`
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Genitive `!(GEN)!` `{nú·t}` `{nú·t·ł}`
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Comitative `!(COM)!` `{nú·kas}` `{nú·kas·ł}`
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Caritive `!(CAR)!` `{nú·ssa}` `{nú·ssa·l}`
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Instrumental `!(INS)!` `{nú·la}` `{nú·la·l}`
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Essive `!(ESS)!` `{nú·gu}` `{nú·gu·l}`
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Translative `!(TRA)!` `{nú·sti}` `{nú·sti·l}`
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Exessive `!(EXE)!` `{nú·ču}` `{nú·ču·l}`
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`!SG!` `!PL!`
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-------- ----------- --------------
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`!NOM!` `{lun}` `{lun·ł}`
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`!GEN!` `{lu·t}` `{lun·t·ł}`
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`!COM!` `{lun·kas}` `{lun·kas·ł}`
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`!CAR!` `{lu·ssa}` `{lu·ssa·l}`
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`!INS!` `{lun·la}` `{lun·la·l}`
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`!ESS!` `{lun·gu}` `{lun·gu·l}`
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`!TRA!` `{lu·sti}` `{lu·sti·l}`
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`!EXE!` `{lun·ču}` `{lun·ču·l}`
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:::
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The _nominative_ is the subject of sentences, and the unmarked form. The
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_genitive_ is used for the object of sentences, the possessive, and for
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modifying other nouns (see [below](#adjectivals)).
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:::glosses
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- Jánim línait bairusi.
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- Jáni-m línai-t bairu-si
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- John-DEF mouse-GEN see-RPST
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- John saw a mouse.
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---
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- Jánimat línai
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- Jáni-ma-t línai
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- John-DEF-GEN mouse
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- John's mouse
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---
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- ausut línai
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- ausu-t línai
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- large-GEN mouse
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- a large mouse
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:::
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For _inalienable_ possession (body parts, family members, etc), the [definite](#definiteness) is usually used instead of an explicit genitive construction.
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:::glosses
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- Nattumatł bairusina.
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- nattu-ma-t-ł bairu-si-na
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- parent-DEF-GEN-PL see-PST-1SG
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- I saw my [the] parents.
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:::
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The _comitative_ case is used for 'and' between two nouns, as well as 'with' in
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the sense of 'accompanied by'. It is used on all but the _last_ noun being
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conjoined, with the last one taking the semantic case for the whole sequence.
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The opposite case, the _caritive_, means 'without', and is also used for
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_negative_ possessive statements. (See the adessive, described below, for
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affirmative statements.)
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:::glosses
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- suksł ká
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- suksł ká
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- they;COM I
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- they and I
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---
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- Kalńkas þasit bairusina.
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- kalń-kas þasi-t bairu-si-na
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- cat-COM dog-GEN see-RPST-1SG
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- I saw a cat and a dog.
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---
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- Sairiassa aina.
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- sairia-ssa ai-na
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- money-CAR be-1SG
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- I don't have any money.
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---
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- Kat fadaukas ká rut ǧimamlis šikkúsi.
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- kat fadau-kas ká rut ǧima-m-li-s šikkú-si
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- my friend-COM I his house-DEF-IN-LAT go-RPST
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- I went with my friend to his house.
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:::
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The most common use of the _instrumental_ case is the "[theme]" of ditransitive
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sentences (while the recipient is in the genitive). It is also used for 'with'
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as in 'using', in distributive phrases such as `{kallila}` 'in threes, in sets
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of three, three each', for quantity expressions such as units, and quantifiers
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like 'every'.
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[theme]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secundative_language
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:::glosses
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- Sanǧula paraina.
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- sanǧu-la parai-na
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- pen-INS write-1SG
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- I write with a pen.
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---
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- kalli litrala tippi
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- kalli litra-la tippi
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- three litre-INS water
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- three litres of water
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---
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- nakasnala hámal
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- nakasnala háma-l
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- every;INS country-PL
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- every country
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---
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- nala núl
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- nala nú-l
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- any;INS person-PL
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- some people
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---
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- nai rala númł
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- nai ra(n)-la nú-m-ł
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- one thing-INS person-DEF-PL
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- one of the people
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---
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- nala númł
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- nala nú-m-ł
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- any;INS person-DEF-PL
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- some of the people
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:::
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The _essive_ case indicates a state, while the _translative_ and _exessive_
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cases indicate a change of state. The translative marks the new state, and the
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exessive the old. The essive and exessive are most commonly used with
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comparatives (see [below](#adjectivals)).
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__TODO: examples__
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# Locational cases
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The locational cases are formed by pairs of suffixes, one for the type of
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motion and one for the orientation or part of the target object.[^tsez] These
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cases have formulaic names, e.g., 'adessive' (at), 'superablative' (from
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above), and so on. The prefixes describe the type of motion, and the main words
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indicate the relative position:
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[^tsez]: You might think that this sounds too artificial, but I actually stole
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it from [Tsez]. That's also where I got the pseudolatin names.
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[Tsez]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsez_language "Tsez on Wikipedia"
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:::figure
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-------- ----------- -------------------------
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ad-- `!AD!` at, on
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in-- `!IN!` in
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pre-- `!PRE!` in front of
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post-- `!POST!` behind
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inter-- `!INTER!` between, among
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super-- `!SUPER!` on top of, above
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sub-- `!SUB!` below, under
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apud-- `!APUD!` near, next to
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-------- ----------- -------------------------
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---------- --------- -------------------------
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essive `!ESS!` at, on
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lative `!LAT!` towards
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ablative `!ABL!` away from
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perlative `!PRL!` through, along
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---------- --------- -------------------------
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:::
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Unlike for the core cases, the endings are the same regardless of whether the
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stem ends in a consonant or vowel, so they are only listed for `{nú}`.
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:::figure
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`!ESS!` `!LAT!` `!ABL!` `!PRL!`
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---------- ------- ------------- --------------- --------------- ----------------
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`!AD!` `!SG!` `{nú·sa}` `{nú·sa·s}` `{nú·sa·n}` `{nú·sa·ri}`
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`!PL!` `{nú·sa·l}` `{nú·sa·s·ł}` `{nú·sa·n·ł}` `{nú·sa·ri·l}`
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`!IN!` `!SG!` `{nú·li}` `{nú·li·s}` `{nú·li·n}` `{nú·li·ri}`
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`!PL!` `{nú·li·l}` `{nú·li·s·ł}` `{nú·li·n·ł}` `{nú·li·ri·l}`
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`!PRE!` `!SG!` `{nú·ðu}` `{nú·ðu·s}` `{nú·ðu·n}` `{nú·ðu·ri}`
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`!PL!` `{nú·ðu·l}` `{nú·ðu·s·ł}` `{nú·ðu·n·ł}` `{nú·ðu·ri·l}`
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`!POST!` `!SG!` `{nú·gi}` `{nú·gi·s}` `{nú·gi·n}` `{nú·gi·ri}`
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`!PL!` `{nú·gi·l}` `{nú·gi·s·ł}` `{nú·gi·n·ł}` `{nú·gi·ri·l}`
|
||||
`!INTER!` `!SG!` `{nú·nua}` `{nú·nua·s}` `{nú·nua·n}` `{nú·nua·ri}`
|
||||
`!PL!` `{nú·nua·l}` `{nú·nua·s·ł}` `{nú·nua·n·ł}` `{nú·nua·ri·l}`
|
||||
`!SUPER!` `!SG!` `{nú·ba}` `{nú·ba·s}` `{nú·ba·n}` `{nú·ba·ri}`
|
||||
`!PL!` `{nú·ba·l}` `{nú·ba·s·ł}` `{nú·ba·n·ł}` `{nú·ba·ri·l}`
|
||||
`!SUB!` `!SG!` `{nú·ku}` `{nú·ku·s}` `{nú·ku·n}` `{nú·ku·ri}`
|
||||
`!PL!` `{nú·ku·l}` `{nú·ku·s·ł}` `{nú·ku·n·ł}` `{nú·ku·ri·l}`
|
||||
`!APUD!` `!SG!` `{nú·mi}` `{nú·mi·s}` `{nú·mi·n}` `{nú·mi·ri}`
|
||||
`!PL!` `{nú·mi·l}` `{nú·mi·s·ł}` `{nú·mi·n·ł}` `{nú·mi·ri·l}`
|
||||
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
- `{Dufnamsas júlisina.}`\
|
||||
`!(AD-LAT)!` I stuck it onto the wall.
|
||||
- `{Ǧimamsa aihapa?}`\
|
||||
`!(AD-ESS)!` Are you at home?
|
||||
- `{Sihamgit ǧimamlis šikkúmána.}`\
|
||||
`!(IN-LAT)!` I'll be going home soon.
|
||||
- `{Sabut kalń káðuri narasi.}`\
|
||||
`!(PRE-PRL)!` A black cat passed in front of me.
|
||||
- `{Ǧimamgi waibifás.}`\
|
||||
`!(POST-ESS)!` They're playing round the back of the house.
|
||||
- `{Lunsari šikkúsina.}`\
|
||||
`!(AD-PRL)!` I went down the road.
|
||||
- `{Lunliri šikkúsina.}`\
|
||||
`!(IN-PRL)!` I went across the road.
|
||||
- `{Lunmiri šikkúsina.}`\
|
||||
`!(APUD-PRL)!` I followed (alongside) the river.
|
||||
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
## Non-locative uses
|
||||
|
||||
- Subessive is used for:
|
||||
* 'in the opinion of': `{Kaku manifnut ai.}` That's pleasant to me/I like that.
|
||||
- Superessive is used for:
|
||||
- 'about': `{Suba jaisi fína.}` I dreamt about you.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Position words
|
||||
|
||||
The position suffixes give rise to the following words based on a root `{fan}`:
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
- `{fansað}`: surface
|
||||
- `{fanlið}`: interior
|
||||
- `{fanduð}`: front
|
||||
- `{fangið}`: back
|
||||
- `{fannuað}`: company
|
||||
- `{fambað}`: top
|
||||
- `{fankuð}`: bottom
|
||||
- `{fammið}`: vicinity
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Adjectivals
|
||||
|
||||
Most words considered as adjectives in other languages are in fact
|
||||
grammatically nouns in Lántas; words such as `{sabu}` can be translated as 'the
|
||||
colour black'. When one noun modifies another attributively, the [genitive
|
||||
case](#corecases) suffix `{-(a)t}` is used. Additional adjectives after the
|
||||
first additionally take a special conjunctive suffix `{-as}`, similar to the
|
||||
comitative case. Adjectives, like other noun modifiers, precede the head noun
|
||||
in most cases. However, they can follow it if they indicate a property
|
||||
considered inherent to the objects in question.
|
||||
|
||||
Genitive forms can be used as adverbs with the suffix `{-tta}`; the conjunctive
|
||||
variant is `{-ttás}`.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- sabut þasi
|
||||
- sabu-t þasi
|
||||
- black-GEN dog
|
||||
- a black dog
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- líbisat þasi
|
||||
- líbis-at þasi
|
||||
- happy-GEN dog
|
||||
- a happy dog
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- sabut líbistas þasi
|
||||
- sabu-t líbis-t-as þasi
|
||||
- black-GEN happy-GEN-CONJ dog
|
||||
- a happy black dog
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Línaim sihatta irhi.
|
||||
- línai-m siha-tta irhi
|
||||
- mouse-GEN small-ADV squeak
|
||||
- The mouse is squeaking quietly.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
From adjectivals, several further derivations can be made: the _equative_, which expresses that two objects have an equal measure of some property; the _comparative_, which says that one object has more of a property than another object; and the _superlative_, which claims that an object has the most of a property. Derivation from `{gaisi}` 'white':
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
----------------------- ---------------
|
||||
Equative `!(EQU)!` `{gaisi·t·sat}`
|
||||
Comparative `!(CMP)!` `{gaisi·t·pat}`
|
||||
Superlative `!(SUPL)!` `{gaisi·t·lit}`
|
||||
----------------------- ---------------
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
The noun being compared with is in the [essive case](#corecases) for the equative, and the exessive for the comparative.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- ǧimagu ausutsat
|
||||
- ǧima-gu ausu-t-sat
|
||||
- house-ESS big-GEN-EQU
|
||||
- as big as a house
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- fíraču panísatpat
|
||||
- fíra-ču panísa-t-pat
|
||||
- sky-EXE blue-GEN-CMP
|
||||
- bluer than the sky
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas numbers
|
||||
hidetoc: true
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
--- ------------ ---- ----------------- ---- --------------- ------ -----------------
|
||||
1 `{nai}` 10 `{taksa}` 19 `{taksístu}` 100 `{bušŕ}`
|
||||
2 `{pas}` 11 `{tahnai}` 20 `{pastaksa}` 1000 `{nifma}`
|
||||
3 `{kalli}` 12 `{tappas}` 30 `{kaldaksa}` 10⁴ `{hárual}`
|
||||
4 `{šasḿ}` 13 `{takkalli}` 40 `{šastaksa}` 10⁵ `{taksahárual}`
|
||||
5 `{kaisi}` 14 `{taksasḿ}` 50 `{kaistaksa}` 10⁶ `{bušŕhárual}`
|
||||
6 `{ǧutta}` 15 `{takkaisi}` 60 `{ǧuttaksa}` 10⁷ `{nifmahárual}`
|
||||
7 `{libina}` 16 `{taččutta}` 70 `{libidaksa}` 10⁸ `{kḿpsi}`
|
||||
8 `{ńdá}` 17 `{taksalibina}` 80 `{ńtaksa}` 10¹² `{kahmil}`
|
||||
9 `{ístu}` 18 `{taksandá}` 90 `{ístaksa}` 10¹⁶ `{uhnat}`
|
||||
--- ------------ ---- ----------------- ---- --------------- ------ -----------------
|
||||
|
||||
Numbers between 20--99 are formed by analogy with those from 11--19, for example
|
||||
`{kaldappas}` for 32 or `{ǧuttaččutta}` for 66. Numbers are given from largest
|
||||
to smallest, with the value and place of each digit written as one word, so
|
||||
43,523 is `{šasḿhárual kallinifma kaisibušŕ pastakkalli}`.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas phonology
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: .
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
# Vowels
|
||||
|
||||
**TODO vowel diagrams**
|
||||
|
||||
There are three basic vowels `/i a u/`, diphthongs `/ai au iə uə/`, and
|
||||
syllabic consonants `/m̩ n̩ r̩ l̩/`. Neither of these last two sets have a length
|
||||
distinction, and have the same duration as a long vowel. Note that `/u uː/` are
|
||||
substantially more central than `/i iː/`, and the initial place of `/uə/` is
|
||||
further back than pure `/uː/`.
|
||||
|
||||
Long vowels, and syllabic consonants other than `{l}`, are spelt with a acute
|
||||
accent: `{í á ú ḿ ń ŕ}`. A syllabic `{l}`, because of its height, replaces the
|
||||
acute with a stroke: `{ł}`. The diphthongs are spelt `{ai au ia ua}`.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
**TODO other diagrams**
|
||||
|
||||
* After a velar consonant, including `/ɫ w/`, the vowels
|
||||
`/a aː ai i iː iə u uː uə/` are backed and lowered to the forms labelled
|
||||
`[ɑ ɑː ɑe ɛ eː eə ɔ oː ɔə]`,
|
||||
respectively, in the figures above.
|
||||
* After `/j/`, `/i iː iə/` become `[e eː eə]`.
|
||||
* After `/tʃ dʒ ʃ j/`, `/u uː/` is fronted to `[y ʉː]`.
|
||||
* Before a syllabic consonant, a small schwa may be inserted if necessary to
|
||||
make pronunciation easier. This is most common between `/ln̩ nl̩/` and two copies
|
||||
of a single sound. For example, `{kalń}` 'cat': `/kaln̩/` → `[kɐlᵊn]`.
|
||||
* `/r̩ l̩/` are pronounced as `[ɻː ɫ̩ː]`.
|
||||
* Syllabic `/n̩/` assimilates to `[ŋ̍]` before a velar consonant; no other
|
||||
assimilation for syllabic nasals occurs, though. (It does for *non*-syllabic
|
||||
nasals, though; see below.)
|
||||
* Unstressed short vowels are somewhat reduced, `/a/` more than the others.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Consonants
|
||||
|
||||
Where unspecified, consonants are spelt the same way as in IPA.
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
Labial Dental Postalveolar Velar
|
||||
------------ ------------- ------------------ ------------------- -------------
|
||||
Plosive `/p b/` `/t d/` `/tʃ dʒ/` `{č ǧ}` `/k g/`
|
||||
Fricative `/f/` `/θ s/` `{ŧ, s}` `/ʃ/` `{š}` `/x/` `{h}`
|
||||
Nasal `/m/` `/n/`
|
||||
Flap `/ɾ/` `{r}`
|
||||
Approximant `/w/` `/l/` `/j/`
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
The phonemes `/p t tʃ k s ʃ m n ɾ l x/` can be geminated. For the purposes of
|
||||
syllable structure, geminated consonants are counted the same as two separate
|
||||
ones. Geminate versions of most consonants are spelt by doubling the letter:
|
||||
`{pp}`, `{tt}`, `{kk}`, etc.
|
||||
|
||||
*The phoneme `/θ/` might be written `{þ}` or `{ð}` in places I have forgotten to update.*
|
||||
|
||||
## Allophony
|
||||
|
||||
- Before `/i iː iə/`, `/ɾ/` becomes `[ʑ̞]`, a laminal fricative with only a
|
||||
small amount of actual friction, almost `[ɹ̻]`.
|
||||
- A nasal followed by a plosive assimilates to the same place of articulation
|
||||
(but for compound words this is not reflected in the spelling), for example
|
||||
`{rabanpa}` `[ravampa]` 'what book?'.
|
||||
- The sequences `/tʃs/` is pronounced as `[tʃː]`, and `/ʃs sʃ ʃj sj/` are all
|
||||
`[ʃː]`.
|
||||
- Nasals before `/s x/` decay to a nasalisation of the previous vowel, or are
|
||||
dropped entirely if that vowel is a syllabic consonant.
|
||||
- Voiced plosives `/b d dʒ ɡ/` become fricatives `[v ð ʒ ɣ]` between proper
|
||||
vowels. The allophone `[v]` is pronounced `[β]` by some speakers.
|
||||
- The velar fricative `/x/` becomes `[h]` before `/r̩/`, and is palatalised to
|
||||
`[ç]` before `/i iː iə/`.
|
||||
- Long `/tʃː/` is pronounced as `[ṯːʃ]` (distinct from the `[tʃː]` coming from
|
||||
`/tʃs tʃʃ/`). Long `/ɾ l/` become `[ʐː ɫː]`.
|
||||
- Non-final `/l/` is velarized `[ɫ]` after a back vowel (including the
|
||||
allophones `[ɑ ɑː]`). After other vowels, it is palatalised.
|
||||
- Non-syllabic `/l/` is pronounced as `[ɬʲ]` at the end of words, even after a
|
||||
back vowel. After `/t/` it is `[ɬ]`. The phoneme `/ɾ/` is also devoiced `[ɾ̥]`
|
||||
word-finally. The sequence `/lθ/` is realised as `[ɬʲː]`.
|
||||
- In many dialects, the long obstruents `/pː tː tʃː kː sː ʃː/` are pronounced as
|
||||
ejectives `[pʼ tʼ tʃʼ kʼ sʼ ʃʼ]`, and the long sonorants `/mː nː lː/` as
|
||||
`[bᵐ dⁿ ɮː]`.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Syllable structure
|
||||
|
||||
The allowed shape of a syllable is *CV*(*C*) where *V* is any vowel and *C* any
|
||||
consonant, as long as all clusters take one of the following forms:
|
||||
|
||||
- *KC*, where *K* can be any of `/m n l r θ s ʃ t/` _(coda consonants)_;
|
||||
- *FN*, where *F* can be `/f θ s ʃ x/` _(fricatives)_ and
|
||||
*N* can be `/m n/` _(nasals)_;
|
||||
- *P*`/s/`, where *P* can be `/p t tʃ k/` _(voiceless plosives)_;
|
||||
- `/pj bj lj rj/`;
|
||||
- geminate consonants.
|
||||
|
||||
Aside from these, a word can also start with a vowel. At the end of a word, the
|
||||
consonants from *K* are allowed. A syllabic consonant cannot be next
|
||||
to the non-syllabic form of the same consonant---for example, the sequences
|
||||
`/ll̩/` and `/l̩l/` are not possible. Two distinct syllabic consonants can be next
|
||||
to each other, however, even without a non-syllabic consonant in between.
|
||||
|
||||
Sometimes an inflectional ending can cause an invalid sequence of syllabic and
|
||||
non-syllabic consonant. In this case, the sequence is replaced with `{a}` plus a
|
||||
long form of the consonant: `{suaþł}` 'speaker'---`{suaþalla}` 'from a
|
||||
speaker'.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Stress
|
||||
|
||||
Words are stressed on the first long vowel, if there is one. If there are no
|
||||
long vowels, _or_ the only one is in the final syllable of a multi-syllabic
|
||||
word, then the stress is on the first syllable. For the purposes of deciding
|
||||
stress placement, neither diphthongs nor syllabic consonants are counted as
|
||||
long.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Epenthesis
|
||||
|
||||
Some affixes begin with a consonant. Occasionally, this will cause an illegal
|
||||
consonant cluster. In this case a vowel will be inserted. The vowel depends on
|
||||
the affix being added, so it is given at the same time as the affix itself. If
|
||||
multiple affixes are added, only the extra vowels necessary to make the word
|
||||
legal are inserted, going left to right: as further affixes are stacked, they
|
||||
might surface and vanish again. See, for instance, the examples given for
|
||||
[adjectival genitives](nouns.html#adjectivals).
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas pronouns, demonstratives, etc
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: .
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
Pronouns are inflected for the same cases as other nouns, though their forms
|
||||
are somewhat irregular.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Personal pronouns
|
||||
|
||||
The first person plural `{til}` is only used inclusively of the listener. For an
|
||||
exclusive meaning, a form like `{rukas ká}` ('they and I') is used.
|
||||
|
||||
The `!LOC!` column is the word stems which the [locational
|
||||
cases](#locational_cases) are attached to. Their suffixes are regular.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
`!1SG!` `!1PL!` `!2SG!` `!2PL!` `!3SG!` `!3PL!`
|
||||
-------- ----------- ------------ ----------- ------------ ----------- ------------
|
||||
`!NOM!` `{ká}` `{til}` `{sur}` `{sual}` `{rú}` `{rúl}`
|
||||
`!GEN!` `{kat}` `{tial}` `{sut}` `{suatł}` `{rut}` `{rutł}`
|
||||
`!COM!` `{kakas}` `{tiksł}` `{sukas}` `{suksł}` `{rukas}` `{ruksł}`
|
||||
`!CAR!` `{kassa}` `{tissal}` `{sussa}` `{sussal}` `{russa}` `{russal}`
|
||||
`!INS!` `{kala}` `{tilla}` `{sulla}` `{sualla}` `{rulla}` `{rualla}`
|
||||
`!ESS!` `{kagu}` `{tigul}` `{sugu}` `{sugul}` `{rugu}` `{rugul}`
|
||||
`!TRA!` `{kasti}` `{tistil}` `{susti}` `{sustul}` `{rusti}` `{rustil}`
|
||||
`!EXE!` `{kaču}` `{tičul}` `{sučču}` `{suččul}` `{ruču}` `{ručul}`
|
||||
`!LOC!` `{ka–}` `{ti–l}` `{su–}` `{sua–l}` `{ru–}` `{rua–l}`
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Demonstratives
|
||||
|
||||
There is a three way distance distinction for demonstratives: a new referent near the speaker/listener, a new referent distant from both, and old information. These will be glossed as 'this', 'yon', and 'that', respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
The near demonstrative is `{lua}`, whose declension is given below. For distant referents it is `{þua}` and for old information `{mua}`; they decline in the same way as `{lua}`.
|
||||
|
||||
The adjectival (ADJ) forms of these words are used as determiners before other nouns. Note that unlike most nouns, it is distinct from the genitive: compare `{muð kalńł}` 'those cats' and `{mut kalńł}` 'that person's cats'. It also lacks stress, unlike the other forms.
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
`!SG!` `!PL!`
|
||||
-------- ----------- -------------
|
||||
`!NOM!` `{lua}` `{lul}`
|
||||
`!GEN!` `{lut}` `{lutł}`
|
||||
`!COM!` `{lukas}` `{luksł}`
|
||||
`!CAR!` `{lussa}` `{lussal}`
|
||||
`!INS!` `{lulla}` `{lullal}`
|
||||
`!ESS!` `{lugu}` `{lugul}`
|
||||
`!TRA!` `{lusti}` `{lustil}`
|
||||
`!EXE!` `{luču}` `{lučul}`
|
||||
`!LOC!` `{lu–}` `{lu–l}`
|
||||
`!ADJ!` `{luð}` `{luð}`
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Indefinites
|
||||
|
||||
The words 'someone', 'something', 'anyone', 'anything' are served by (a stressed form of) the numeral `{nai}` 'one'. 'Everyone' or 'everything' is `{nakasnai}`, and inflects the same way as `{nai}` itself. The words `{nala}` and `{nakasnala}` mean 'any' and 'every', respectively.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Interrogatives
|
||||
|
||||
Interrogatives (question words) are formed with the enclitic `{-pa}`, attached to any noun phrase. As well as `{naipa}` 'what?, who?', it can be added to any other word to mean 'which?'.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- Naipa musat ai?
|
||||
- Nai=pa mu-sa-t ai
|
||||
- one=what that-AD-ESS be
|
||||
- Who's there?
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Hámamlinaspa sidasiha?
|
||||
- háma-m-li-nas=pa sida-si-ha
|
||||
- country-DEF-IN-ABL=what come-RPST-2SG
|
||||
- Which country do you come from?
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
Being a clitic, `{-pa}` is added to the end of the noun, after all other (non-clitic) endings such as case inflections, as shown in the above examples.
|
||||
|
|
@ -0,0 +1,291 @@
|
|||
---
|
||||
title: Lántas verbs
|
||||
backname: Lántas
|
||||
backlink: ../laantas
|
||||
...
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO: intro__
|
||||
|
||||
The infinitive is unmarked (but always ends in a vowel), and is the citation form for verbs as well as being used in several constructions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Tense
|
||||
|
||||
There is a distinction between two different past tenses, _recent_ and _distant_ past. The recent past is most commonly used, while the distant past is used to denote an action happening further in the past than to another action already expressed using the recent.
|
||||
|
||||
Stories are narrated in the present tense.
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
------------------------ ----------
|
||||
Distant past `!(DPST)!` `{–sai}`
|
||||
Recent past `!(RPST)!` `{–si}`
|
||||
Present `!(PRS)!` `{–}`
|
||||
Future `!(FUT)!` `{–má}`
|
||||
------------------------ ----------
|
||||
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- Þasim kalńḿt jaðí.
|
||||
- þasi-m kalń-ḿ-t jaðí
|
||||
- dog-DEF cat-DEF-GEN love;PRS
|
||||
- The dog loves the cat.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þasim kalńḿt jaðísi.
|
||||
- þasim kalńḿt jaðí-si
|
||||
- the:dog the:cat love-RPST
|
||||
- The dog loved the cat.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þasim kalńḿt jaðísai.
|
||||
- þasim kalńḿt jaðí-sai
|
||||
- the:dog the:cat love-DPST
|
||||
- The dog had loved the cat (until …).
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þasim kalńḿt jaðímá.
|
||||
- þasim kalńḿt jaðí-má
|
||||
- the:dog the:cat love-FUT
|
||||
- The dog will love the cat.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Person
|
||||
|
||||
These suffixes are used instead of pronouns (but not nouns) in the subject
|
||||
and object positions. The subject suffix comes before the object. For the
|
||||
plural, the vowel is lengthened and `{–š}` is added (e.g. `{–na}` to `{–náš}`).
|
||||
|
||||
Just like with the [pronouns](#pronouns), the first person plurals `{–náš}`
|
||||
and `{–dúš}` can only be used with an inclusive meaning. The exclusive sense
|
||||
is expressed by using conjunctions of pronouns instead of suffixes.
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
`!1!` `!2!` `!3!`
|
||||
------------------ -------- -------- --------
|
||||
Subject `!(SBJ)!` `{–na}` `{–ha}` `{–fa}`
|
||||
Object `!(OBJ)!` `{–du}` `{–gu}` `{–bu}`
|
||||
------------------ -------- -------- --------
|
||||
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- Bairunagu.
|
||||
- bairu-**na**-**gu**
|
||||
- see-1SG;SBJ-2SG;OBJ
|
||||
- I see you.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þasim bairunáš.
|
||||
- þasi-m bairu-**náš**
|
||||
- dog-DEF see-1PL;SBJ
|
||||
- We see the dog.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þasim bairudúš.
|
||||
- þasi-m bairu-**dúš**
|
||||
- dog-DEF see-1PL;OBJ
|
||||
- The dog sees us.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Voice
|
||||
|
||||
There is a four way voice distinction. The voice markers are placed between the tense and person markers.
|
||||
|
||||
- The _active_ voice is the default form of the verb and does not modify the roles of the arguments.
|
||||
- The _passive_ voice promotes the direct object of the verb to subject position, leaving the former subject role unspecified. There is no way to specify the agent (i.e., no equivalent to _by_); to merely emphasise the object but keep the subject specified, the object can be moved to the beginning of the clause.
|
||||
- The _reflexive_ voice indicates that the subject(s) act on themselves.
|
||||
- The _reciprocal_ voice indicates that the subjects act on each other.
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
|
||||
--------------------- ----------
|
||||
Active `!(ACT)!` `{–}`
|
||||
Passive `!(PSV)!` `{–lú}`
|
||||
Reflexive `!(RFL)!` `{–sidu}`
|
||||
Reciprocal `!(RCP)!` `{–lði}`
|
||||
--------------------- ----------
|
||||
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- Þasimat tassána.
|
||||
- þasimat tassá-na
|
||||
- the:dog wash-1SG
|
||||
- I wash the dog.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þasim tassálú.
|
||||
- þasim tassá-**lú**
|
||||
- the:dog wash-PSV
|
||||
- The dog is washed.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Tassásiduna.
|
||||
- tassá-**sidu**-na
|
||||
- wash-RFL-1SG
|
||||
- I wash myself.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Tassálðináš.
|
||||
- tassá-**lði**-náš
|
||||
- wash-RCP-1PL
|
||||
- We wash each other.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Negative
|
||||
|
||||
__TODO__
|
||||
|
||||
`{--tul}`
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Nominal forms
|
||||
|
||||
A verb stem can also be used as a noun: for example, `{šikkú}` both means 'to
|
||||
go' and 'an act of going'. The definite plural is also used to mean the act in
|
||||
a general sense. The definite form is also used for the verb of content
|
||||
clauses, for example indirect quotations, and with auxiliary verbs such as
|
||||
modals.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- hipsamł
|
||||
- hipsa-m-ł
|
||||
- solve_problem-DEF-PL
|
||||
- logic (the general act of problem solving)
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Fíra fuham suasifa.
|
||||
- fíra fuha-m sua-si-fa
|
||||
- air blow-DEF say-RPST-3SG
|
||||
- He said it was windy.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Šikkúnamat ušminatul.
|
||||
- šikkú-na-m-at ušmi-na-tul
|
||||
- go-1SG-DEF-GEN want-1SG-NEG
|
||||
- I don't want to go.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Modifier forms
|
||||
|
||||
A verb form can be suffixed with `{–ja}` to turn it into a noun modifier. This
|
||||
is used to make relative clauses.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- þasim bairuja ausut kášńḿ
|
||||
- þasi-m bairu-ja ausu-t kášń-ḿ
|
||||
- dog-DEF see-REL size-GEN lizard-DEF
|
||||
- the big lizard that the dog sees
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- þasimat bairuja ausut kášńḿ
|
||||
- þasim-at bairu-ja ausut kášńḿ
|
||||
- the:dog-GEN see-REL big the:lizard
|
||||
- the lizard that sees the dog
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
A relative clause can be made into a noun phrase of its own with `{–ð}`,
|
||||
meaning 'the one who \_\_\_\_'.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- kášńł bairujað
|
||||
- kášń-ł bairu-ja-ð
|
||||
- lizard-PL see-REL-NOM
|
||||
- the one who sees lizards
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Pro-verbs
|
||||
|
||||
Pro-verbs are placeholders standing in for verb phrases; they are the verb equivalent of pronouns.
|
||||
|
||||
The word for 'to do this' is `{mai}`, related to the [pronoun] `{mua}`. There
|
||||
are also `{lai}` and `{þai}`, which are used only when contrasting between two
|
||||
options.
|
||||
|
||||
[pronoun]: prons.html#demonstratives
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- Naranášḿ iš lut saunusam gibanášḿ fulla.
|
||||
- nara-náš-ḿ iš lut_saunu-sa-m giba-náš-ḿ fulla
|
||||
- walk-1PL-DEF or bus-AD-DEF ride-1PL-DEF can
|
||||
- We can walk or take the bus.
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- *Laim* iš *þaim* ušmiha?
|
||||
- lai-m iš þai-m ušmi-ha
|
||||
- do_this-DEF or do_that-DEF want-2SG
|
||||
- Which do you want to do?
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Þaim ušmina.
|
||||
- þai-m ušmi-na
|
||||
- do_this-DEF want-1SG
|
||||
- I want to take the bus.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
There is also a negative pro-verb `{tulla}`, 'to not do this/that'.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
# Polar questions
|
||||
|
||||
Polar (yes/no) questions add a `{–ǧi}` clitic on the word or phrase being
|
||||
questioned. The word being questioned receives the primary stress. If there is
|
||||
no particular focus for the question, it is attached to the final word of the
|
||||
sentence.
|
||||
|
||||
:::glosses
|
||||
- Inlantimsasǧi šikkúmáha?
|
||||
- inlanti-m-sa-s-ǧi šikkú-má-ha
|
||||
- england-DEF-AD-LAT-QU go-FUT-2SG
|
||||
- Are you going to england (vs going somewhere else)?
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Surǧi inlantimsas šikkúmá?
|
||||
- sur-ǧi inlantimsas šikkúmá
|
||||
- 2SG-QU to:england will:go
|
||||
- Is it you (vs someone else) who is going to england?
|
||||
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
- Inlantimsas šikkúmáhaǧi?
|
||||
- inlantimsas šikkúmáha-ǧi
|
||||
- to:england you:will:go-QU
|
||||
- Are you going to england (vs coming from it)?
|
||||
:::
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
To answer a yes/no question, the verbs `{mai}` or `{tulla}`, respectively, are
|
||||
conjugated for person (but not tense, etc). Their literal meaning are as
|
||||
[pro-verbs], 'to (not) do this'.
|
||||
|
||||
[pro-verbs]: #pro-verbs
|
||||
|
||||
:::figure
|
||||
- `{Inlantimsasǧi šikkúmáha?}`\
|
||||
Are you going to england?
|
||||
- `{Maina/Tullana.}`\
|
||||
Yes, I am/No, I'm not.
|
||||
:::
|
||||
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Reference in New Issue